Antibodies in the blood recognize viral antigens and neutralize the virus.

Structure of antibodies-light chain, heavy chain, antigen binding site. Antibodies bind to antigens and neutralize the virus particle.

Antibodies must be specific to unknown, foreign particles. Each B cells/plasma cell clone produce and secrete a specific type of antibody.

Primary response versus secondary response. Secondary response is much faster and stronger due to memory cells from the primary response. This is the basis for vaccines.

Definitions of immunoglobulin, antigen, and epitope. External and internal epitopes on antigens can be recognized by antibodies. Recognition of antigen by antibody on the B cell induces the specific B cell to proliferate to produce more specific antibodies.

B cells make different antibodies with the same DNA sequence when various versions of V, D, and J DNA segments combine. Mistakes at the fusion point of the segments also contribute to the variability. Different light chains and heavy chains can combine and the antibody genes are more mutation prone.

Nonsense rearrangements must be eliminated. Antibody cannot react against native proteins (autoimmune disease). The body selectively stimulates B cells that make antibodies that tightly bind to and neutralizes the antigen.

Humoral immunity produces soluble antibody molecules and cellular immunity uses cytotoxic T cells to recognize and kill infected cells.

Macrophage internalizes foreign particles, presents small peptides on their surfaces, and induce production of specific T helper cells. Use example of bazaar to demonstrate interaction between MHCII of the macrophage and the T cell receptor of the T helper cell.

Macrophage internalizes foreign particles, presents small peptides on their surfaces, and induce production of specific T helper cells. Use example of bazaar to demonstrate interaction between MHCII of the macrophage and the T cell receptor of the T helper cell.

T helper cells interact with antibodies on the B cell to stimulate it to proliferate. The complex immune system activation involving macrophage, T cell, and B cell reduces the chance of autoimmunity.

Different types of receptor neurons. Parts of an individual neuron - cell body, axon, axon hillock, nerve terminals, synapses.

Questions that arise in neurobiology.

Electrical and concentration gradients of ions are responsible for the action potential. Briefly mentions action potential, deplorization and repolarization.

Concentration gradients of Na+, K+, and Ca++ across the axon membrane are established by ion pumps embedded in the membrane. Energy driven pumps establish an electrical, concentration equilibrium that creates the resting potential at -70mV.

Voltage-gated Na+ and K+ ion channels create the action potential by depolarizing and repolarizing the membrane as ions move across the membrane based on the electrical gradients.

Action potential is propagated along the axon by locally affecting potential of nearby membrane. Myelin sheathes made by Schwann cells allow faster transmission of the action potential.

In the pre-synaptic cell, action potential at the nerve terminal induces Ca++ to enter the cell, which helps release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Neurotransmitters bind to the ligand-gated Na+ ion channels on the post-synaptic cell and induces action potentials. Neurotransmitters are degraded when no longer needed.

Nerves can positively or negatively affect the post-synaptic cell. Information from thousands of nerve terminals are integrated at the axon hillock to produce a all-or-nothing action potential response.

Circuitry between sensory neuron, motor neuron, intermediate neurons, and muscle cell. The circuitry allow parts of the body to be coordinated when responding to the same stimulus.

Life cycle and infection of the polio virus. Jenner and his discovery of vaccine for polio. Vaccines can be made from heat attenuated or formaldehyde treated polio viruses.

History of AIDS, discovery of HIV, life cycle, infection, and inhibitors of HIV.

Definition, origin, examples, and comparison. Heterotrophs such as humans cannot make certain amino acids and other essential compounds.

Overview and the four major characteristics of adaptive immunity - diversity, specificity, avoid self-recognition, and memory.

Comparison of the two types of immunity - characteristics, and cells and molecules involved.

Structure, function, complementarity, and production. 3D molecular image. One plasma cell produces one antibody. Random combinations of various V, D, and J segments of the DNA results in many combinations that encodes different antibody proteins.

B cells display their antibody on the surface. Tight binding between the antibody and antigen stimulate the B cell to divide. Division gives rise to plamsa cells that produce antibodies, and memory cells, which are responsible for a faster secondary immune response.

Mechanisms and cells used to destroy pathogens - bacteria or virus.

T cells that recognize foreign peptides displayed by other cells on their major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells; helper T cells activate B cells.

Education of immune cells in the thymus. All cells that react to self peptides are killed. Examples of autoimmunity.

Structure, diversity, and function of antibodies. Production of antibodies through VDJ recombination and the cell types involved. Clonal expansion, and primary and secondary immune responses.

Summary of history of AIDS, consequences, and symptoms. Life cycle and infection by HIV and compromised immune system.

Immune response to viral infections and how viruses try to evade the system.

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Antibodies as transmembrane receptors that induce B cell proliferation post infection. Memory B cells responsible for rapid second immune response.

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Parts and function of the neuron. Ion channels, their state (open, closed, inactivated), and contribution to the action potential.

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Secretion, function, and reduction of neurotransmitters in the synapse.

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The concentrations of ions and types of channels responsible for the resting potential.

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Channels permeability and ion movement during the action potential.

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Define the resting potential and how it is maintained in a neuron.

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States of various channels during an action potential and the effect of defective mutant channels on the shape of an action potential.

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The process of transmitting an action potential from one neuron to the next. Ligands and receptors involved in the process and the affect of receptor up-regulation.

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Cells that contain MHCI and MHCII and the peptides presented by the MHC molecules.

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Quantitative calculation of the result of VDJ recombination that creates antibodies, and B and T cell receptors.

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Fate of immature and mature T cells that recognize foreign and self antigens.

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Identifying antibody structures and ways to generate diversity.

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Humoral and cellular immune responses involving B cells, T cells, and macrophage. Functions of various molecules. Purpose and function of vaccines.

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Humoral and cellular immune responses involving B cells, T cells, and macrophage. Functions of various molecules. Purpose and function of vaccines.

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Comprehensive review of the structure, life cycle, and infection of the human immunodeficiency virus.

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Fill in the blank questions on the basics of immunology - cell types, molecules, humoral response and cellular response.

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Action potential, voltage, and various states of ion pumps and channels. Neurotransmitters and chemical synapse.

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Action potential, voltage, and various states of ion pumps and channels. Neurotransmitters and chemical synapse.

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Action potential, voltage, and various states of ion pumps and channels. Neurotransmitters and chemical synapse.

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Diagram for different parts of a gene encoding an antibody showing variation produced by VDJ DNA rearrangement and alternative splicing. Antibody structure and memory B cell.

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Cells and molecules involved in an immune response to viral infection. Pros and cons of vaccinating against chickenpox.

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Biochemical interactions between antibody and antigen, and DNA mutations that strengthen or weaken these interactions.

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Cell types, molecules, and functions of innate, humoral, and cellular immunity.

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Production and use of vaccine. Causes of antibody diversity.

Ion channels involved in the action potential and changes in the potential across the axon membrane. Signal transmission at the synapse between two neurons.

True or false questions about functions of cells in the immune system. Production of antibodies against protein from a different species.