WEBVTT

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Yes, OK, four, three,
two, one, OK, I

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see you guys are
in a happy mood.

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I don't know if that
means 18.06 is ending,

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or, the quiz was good.

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Uh, my birthday
conference was going

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on at the time of the quiz, and
in the conference, of course,

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everybody had to
say nice things,

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but I was wondering,
what would my 18.06

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class be saying, because it was
at the exactly the same time.

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But, what I know from
the grades so far,

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they're basically close to, and
maybe slightly above the grades

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that you got on quiz two.

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So, very satisfactory.

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And, then we have a
final exam coming up,

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and today's lecture,
as I told you by email,

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will be a first
step in the review,

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and then on Wednesday
I'll do all I can

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in reviewing the whole course.

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So my topic today
is -- actually,

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this is a lecture I have never
given before in this way,

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and it will -- well,
four subspaces,

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that's certainly fundamental,
and you know that,

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so I want to speak
about left-inverses

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and right-inverses and
then something called

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pseudo-inverses.

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And pseudo-inverses,
let me say right away,

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that comes in near the
end of chapter seven,

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and that would not be
expected on the final.

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But you'll see that
what I'm talking about

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is really the basic stuff that,
for an m-by-n matrix of rank r,

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we're going back to the most
fundamental picture in linear

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algebra.

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Nobody could forget
that picture, right?

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When you're my age, even,
you'll remember the row space,

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and the null space.

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Orthogonal complements over
there, the column space

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and the null space of
A transpose column,

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orthogonal
complements over here.

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And I want to speak
about inverses.

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OK.

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And I want to identify the
different possibilities.

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So first of all,
when does a matrix

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have a just a perfect
inverse, two-sided, you know,

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so the two-sided inverse is what
we just call inverse, right?

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And, so that means that
there's a matrix that

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produces the identity, whether
we write it on the left

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or on the right.

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And just tell me, how
are the numbers r,

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the rank, n the number of
columns, m the number of rows,

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how are those
numbers related when

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we have an invertible matrix?

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So this is the
matrix which was --

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chapter two was all
about matrices like this,

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the beginning of the course,
what was the relation of th-

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of r, m, and n,
for the nice case?

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They're all the same, all equal.

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So this is the case when r=m=n.

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Square matrix, full
rank, period, just --

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so I'll use the words full rank.

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OK, good.

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Everybody knows that.

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OK.

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Then chapter three.

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We began to deal with matrices
that were not of full rank,

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and they could have any rank,
and we learned what the rank

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was.

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And then we focused,
if you remember

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on some cases like
full column rank.

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Now, can you remember what was
the deal with full column rank?

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So, now, I think this
is the case in which we

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have a left-inverse,
and I'll try to find it.

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So we have a --

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what was the situation there?

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It's the case of full column
rank, and that means --

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what does that mean about r?

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It equals, what's
the deal with r, now,

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if we have full
column rank, I mean

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the columns are independent,
but maybe not the rows.

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So what is r equal
to in this case?

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n.

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Thanks.

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n.

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r=n.

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The n columns are
independent, but probably, we

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have more rows.

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What's the picture, and then
what's the null space for this?

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So the n columns
are independent,

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what's the null
space in this case?

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So of course, you
know what I'm asking.

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You're saying, why is this guy
asking something, I know that--

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I think about it in my sleep,

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right?

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So the null space of this
matrix if the rank is

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n, the null space is what
vectors are in the null space?

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Just the zero vector.

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Right?

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The columns are independent.

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Independent columns.

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No combination of the columns
gives zero except that one.

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And what's my picture over, --

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let me redraw my picture --

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the row space is everything.

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No.

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Is that right?

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Let's see, I often get
these turned around, right?

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So what's the deal?

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The columns are
independent, right?

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So the rank should be the full
number of columns, so what

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does that tell us?

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There's no null space, right.

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OK.

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The row space is
the whole thing.

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Yes, I won't even
draw the picture.

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And what was the deal with --

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and these were very important
in least squares problems

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because --

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So, what more is true here?

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If we have full column rank,
the null space is zero,

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we have independent
columns, the unique --

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so we have zero or
one solutions to Ax=b.

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There may not be any solutions,
but if there's a solution,

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there's only one solution
because other solutions are

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found by adding on stuff
from the null space,

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and there's nobody
there to add on.

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So the particular
solution is the solution,

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if there is a
particular solution.

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But of course, the
rows might not be -

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are probably not independent
-- and therefore,

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so right-hand sides won't end
up with a zero equal zero after

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elimination, so sometimes
we may have no solution,

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or one solution.

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OK.

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And what I want to say is
that for this matrix A --

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oh, yes, tell me something about
A transpose A in this case.

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So this whole part of the board,
now, is devoted to this case.

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What's the deal
with A transpose A?

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I've emphasized over and over
how important that combination

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is, for a rectangular
matrix, A transpose A

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is the good thing to look
at, and if the rank is n,

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if the null space
has only zero in it,

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then the same is true
of A transpose A.

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That's the beautiful fact, that
if the rank of A is n, well,

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we know this will be an
n by n symmetric matrix,

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and it will be full rank.

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So this is invertible.

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This matrix is invertible.

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That matrix is invertible.

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And now I want to show
you that A itself has

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a one-sided inverse.

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Here it is.

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The inverse of that, which
exists, times A transpose,

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there is a one-sided --
shall I call it A inverse?

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-- left of the matrix A.

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Why do I say that?

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Because if I multiply this
guy by A, what do I get?

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What does that
multiplication give?

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Of course, you
know it instantly,

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because I just put
the parentheses there,

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I have A transpose A
inverse times A transpose A

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so, of course,
it's the identity.

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So it's a left inverse.

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And this was the totally
crucial case for least squares,

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because you remember that least
squares, the central equation

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of least squares had this
matrix, A transpose A,

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as its coefficient matrix.

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And in the case of
full column rank,

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that matrix is
invertible, and we're go.

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So that's the case where
there is a left-inverse.

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So A does whatever it does,
we can find a matrix that

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brings it back to the identity.

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Now, is it true that,
in the other order --

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so A inverse left times
A is the identity.

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Right?

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This matrix is m by n.

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This matrix is n by m.

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The identity matrix is n by n.

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All good.

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All good if you're n.

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But if you try to put that
matrix on the other side,

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it would fail.

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If the full column rank --
if this is smaller than m,

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the case where they're
equals is the beautiful case,

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but that's all set.

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Now, we're looking
at the case where

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the columns are independent
but the rows are not.

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So this is invertible,
but what matrix is not

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invertible?

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A A transpose is
bad for this case.

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A transpose A is good.

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So we can multiply on the
left, everything good,

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we get the left inverse.

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But it would not be
a two-sided inverse.

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A rectangular matrix can't
have a two-sided inverse,

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because there's got to be
some null space, right?

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If I have a matrix
that's rectangular,

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then either that
matrix or its transpose

00:11:58.920 --> 00:12:02.340
has some null space, because
if n and m are different,

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then there's going to be
some free variables around,

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and we'll have some null
space in that direction.

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OK, tell me the corresponding
picture for the opposite case.

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So now I'm going to ask
you about right-inverses.

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A right-inverse.

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And you can fill
this all out, this

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is going to be the
case of full row rank.

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And then r is equal to m, now,
the m rows are independent,

00:12:41.870 --> 00:12:45.270
but the columns are not.

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So what's the deal on that?

00:12:47.000 --> 00:12:50.640
Well, just exactly
the flip of this one.

00:12:50.640 --> 00:12:57.400
The null space of A
transpose contains only zero,

00:12:57.400 --> 00:13:00.480
because there are no
combinations of the rows that

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give the zero row.

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We have independent rows.

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And in a minute, I'll give
an example of all these.

00:13:13.660 --> 00:13:17.545
So, how many solutions
to Ax=b in this case?

00:13:23.159 --> 00:13:24.200
The rows are independent.

00:13:27.050 --> 00:13:30.980
So we can always solve Ax=b.

00:13:30.980 --> 00:13:34.540
Whenever elimination
never produces a zero row,

00:13:34.540 --> 00:13:38.290
so we never get into that
zero equal one problem,

00:13:38.290 --> 00:13:43.470
so Ax=b always has a
solution, but too many.

00:13:43.470 --> 00:13:50.140
So there will be some null
space, the null space of A --

00:13:50.140 --> 00:13:54.460
what will be the dimension
of A's null space?

00:13:54.460 --> 00:13:58.910
How many free
variables have we got?

00:13:58.910 --> 00:14:03.410
How many special solutions in
that null space have we got?

00:14:03.410 --> 00:14:06.090
So how many free
variables in this setup?

00:14:06.090 --> 00:14:12.680
We've got n columns,
so n variables,

00:14:12.680 --> 00:14:16.530
and this tells us
how many are pivot

00:14:16.530 --> 00:14:19.170
variables, that tells us
how many pivots there are,

00:14:19.170 --> 00:14:21.930
so there are n-m free variables.

00:14:21.930 --> 00:14:27.940
So there are infinitely
many solutions to Ax=b.

00:14:27.940 --> 00:14:37.220
We have n-m free
variables in this case.

00:14:37.220 --> 00:14:38.240
OK.

00:14:38.240 --> 00:14:45.600
Now I wanted to ask about
this idea of a right-inverse.

00:14:45.600 --> 00:14:46.720
OK.

00:14:46.720 --> 00:14:52.710
So I'm going to have a matrix
A, my matrix A, and now

00:14:52.710 --> 00:14:54.960
there's going to be some
inverse on the right that

00:14:54.960 --> 00:14:57.710
will give the identity matrix.

00:14:57.710 --> 00:15:05.500
So it will be A times A inverse
on the right, will be I.

00:15:05.500 --> 00:15:12.290
And can you tell me
what, just by comparing

00:15:12.290 --> 00:15:18.560
with what we had up there,
what will be the right-inverse,

00:15:18.560 --> 00:15:21.150
we even have a formula for it.

00:15:21.150 --> 00:15:22.760
There will be other --

00:15:22.760 --> 00:15:24.820
actually, there are
other left-inverses,

00:15:24.820 --> 00:15:26.610
that's our favorite.

00:15:26.610 --> 00:15:28.350
There will be other
right-inverses,

00:15:28.350 --> 00:15:31.620
but tell me our favorite here,
what's the nice right-inverse?

00:15:35.240 --> 00:15:39.470
The nice right-inverse
will be, well, there we

00:15:39.470 --> 00:15:43.820
had A transpose A
was good, now it

00:15:43.820 --> 00:15:46.860
will be A A transpose
that's good.

00:15:46.860 --> 00:15:49.680
The good matrix,
the good right --

00:15:49.680 --> 00:15:53.200
the thing we can invert
is A A transpose,

00:15:53.200 --> 00:16:00.540
so now if I just do it that way,
there sits the right-inverse.

00:16:00.540 --> 00:16:03.930
You see how completely parallel
it is to the one above?

00:16:11.220 --> 00:16:11.964
Right.

00:16:11.964 --> 00:16:13.130
So that's the right-inverse.

00:16:13.130 --> 00:16:20.960
So that's the case
when there is --

00:16:20.960 --> 00:16:25.390
In terms of this
picture, tell me

00:16:25.390 --> 00:16:29.770
what the null spaces are like
so far for these three cases.

00:16:29.770 --> 00:16:32.530
What about case
one, where we had

00:16:32.530 --> 00:16:36.930
a two-sided inverse, full
rank, everything great.

00:16:36.930 --> 00:16:41.290
The null spaces were,
like, gone, right?

00:16:41.290 --> 00:16:44.480
The null spaces were
just the zero vectors.

00:16:44.480 --> 00:16:49.590
Then I took case two,
this null space was gone.

00:16:52.990 --> 00:16:58.890
Case three, this null space was
gone, and then case four is,

00:16:58.890 --> 00:17:04.250
like, the most general case when
this picture is all there --

00:17:04.250 --> 00:17:10.680
when all the null spaces --
this has dimension r, of course,

00:17:10.680 --> 00:17:14.700
this has dimension n-r,
this has dimension r,

00:17:14.700 --> 00:17:26.800
this has dimension m-r, and the
final case will be when r is

00:17:26.800 --> 00:17:29.210
smaller than m and n.

00:17:29.210 --> 00:17:38.940
But can I just,
before I leave here

00:17:38.940 --> 00:17:43.750
look a little more at this one?

00:17:43.750 --> 00:17:46.510
At this case of
full column rank?

00:17:46.510 --> 00:17:52.070
So A inverse on the left,
it has this left-inverse

00:17:52.070 --> 00:17:53.930
to give the identity.

00:17:53.930 --> 00:17:56.540
I said if we multiply
it in the other order,

00:17:56.540 --> 00:17:57.970
we wouldn't get the identity.

00:17:57.970 --> 00:18:02.650
But then I just realized that I
should ask you, what do we get?

00:18:02.650 --> 00:18:05.260
So if I put them in
the other order --

00:18:05.260 --> 00:18:19.010
if I continue this down below,
but I write A times A inverse

00:18:19.010 --> 00:18:21.040
left -- so there's A
times the left-inverse,

00:18:21.040 --> 00:18:23.370
but it's not on
the left any more.

00:18:23.370 --> 00:18:26.970
So it's not going to
come out perfectly.

00:18:26.970 --> 00:18:35.990
But everybody in this room
ought to recognize that matrix,

00:18:35.990 --> 00:18:38.150
right?

00:18:38.150 --> 00:18:42.080
Let's see, is that
the guy we know?

00:18:42.080 --> 00:18:43.195
Am I OK, here?

00:18:51.280 --> 00:18:53.000
What is that matrix?

00:18:53.000 --> 00:18:56.130
P. Thanks.

00:18:56.130 --> 00:18:59.230
P. That matrix --

00:18:59.230 --> 00:19:02.070
it's a projection.

00:19:02.070 --> 00:19:07.750
It's the projection
onto the column space.

00:19:07.750 --> 00:19:12.340
It's trying to be the
identity matrix, right?

00:19:12.340 --> 00:19:17.620
A projection matrix tries
to be the identity matrix,

00:19:17.620 --> 00:19:22.140
but you've given it,
an impossible job.

00:19:22.140 --> 00:19:25.240
So it's the identity
matrix where it can be,

00:19:25.240 --> 00:19:27.750
and elsewhere, it's
the zero matrix.

00:19:27.750 --> 00:19:29.820
So this is P, right.

00:19:29.820 --> 00:19:34.190
A projection onto
the column space.

00:19:34.190 --> 00:19:38.190
And if I asked you this one,
and put these in the opposite

00:19:38.190 --> 00:19:41.340
OK. order -- so this
came from up here.

00:19:41.340 --> 00:19:45.610
And similarly, if I try to put
the right inverse on the left

00:19:45.610 --> 00:19:48.380
--

00:19:48.380 --> 00:19:51.840
so that, like, came from above.

00:19:51.840 --> 00:19:53.810
This, coming from
this side, what

00:19:53.810 --> 00:19:56.620
happens if I try to put the
right inverse on the left?

00:19:56.620 --> 00:20:05.090
Then I would have A transpose
A, A transpose inverse A,

00:20:05.090 --> 00:20:08.350
if this matrix is
now on the left, what

00:20:08.350 --> 00:20:09.880
do you figure that matrix is?

00:20:09.880 --> 00:20:17.390
It's going to be a
projection, too, right?

00:20:17.390 --> 00:20:19.090
It looks very much
like this guy,

00:20:19.090 --> 00:20:22.400
except the only difference
is, A and A transpose

00:20:22.400 --> 00:20:24.100
have been reversed.

00:20:24.100 --> 00:20:27.960
So this is a projection,
this is another projection,

00:20:27.960 --> 00:20:29.710
onto the row space.

00:20:33.520 --> 00:20:35.850
Again, it's trying
to be the identity,

00:20:35.850 --> 00:20:39.980
but there's only so
much the matrix can do.

00:20:39.980 --> 00:20:44.580
And this is the projection
onto the column space.

00:20:44.580 --> 00:20:50.600
So let me now go back
to the main picture

00:20:50.600 --> 00:20:55.600
and tell you about the general
case, the pseudo-inverse.

00:20:55.600 --> 00:20:58.060
These are cases we know.

00:20:58.060 --> 00:21:01.500
So this was important review.

00:21:01.500 --> 00:21:08.480
You've got to know the
business about these ranks,

00:21:08.480 --> 00:21:11.350
and the free variables --

00:21:11.350 --> 00:21:14.960
really, this is linear
algebra coming together.

00:21:14.960 --> 00:21:19.130
And, you know, one nice
thing about teaching 18.06,

00:21:19.130 --> 00:21:23.260
It's not trivial.

00:21:23.260 --> 00:21:25.610
But it's --

00:21:25.610 --> 00:21:28.590
I don't know, somehow, it's
nice when it comes out right.

00:21:28.590 --> 00:21:31.360
I mean -- well, I shouldn't say
anything bad about calculus,

00:21:31.360 --> 00:21:33.050
but I will.

00:21:33.050 --> 00:21:35.150
I mean, like, you
know, you have formulas

00:21:35.150 --> 00:21:40.190
for surface area, and other
awful things and, you know,

00:21:40.190 --> 00:21:46.580
they do their best in
calculus, but it's not elegant.

00:21:46.580 --> 00:21:52.300
And, linear algebra just
is -- well, you know,

00:21:52.300 --> 00:21:54.770
linear algebra is about
the nice part of calculus,

00:21:54.770 --> 00:22:00.880
where everything's, like, flat,
and, the formulas come out

00:22:00.880 --> 00:22:01.830
right.

00:22:01.830 --> 00:22:04.040
And you can go into
high dimensions

00:22:04.040 --> 00:22:06.820
where, in calculus,
you're trying

00:22:06.820 --> 00:22:09.780
to visualize these things,
well, two or three dimensions

00:22:09.780 --> 00:22:10.810
is kind of the limit.

00:22:10.810 --> 00:22:12.430
But here, we don't --

00:22:12.430 --> 00:22:16.280
you know, I've stopped
doing two-by-twos,

00:22:16.280 --> 00:22:18.160
I'm just talking about
the general case.

00:22:18.160 --> 00:22:22.430
OK, now I really will speak
about the general case here.

00:22:22.430 --> 00:22:27.810
What could be the inverse --

00:22:27.810 --> 00:22:29.910
what's a kind of
reasonable inverse

00:22:29.910 --> 00:22:34.070
for a matrix for the
completely general matrix where

00:22:34.070 --> 00:22:38.410
there's a rank r, but
it's smaller than n,

00:22:38.410 --> 00:22:41.680
so there's some null space
left, and it's smaller

00:22:41.680 --> 00:22:44.930
than m, so a transpose
has some null space,

00:22:44.930 --> 00:22:48.430
and it's those null spaces
that are screwing up inverses,

00:22:48.430 --> 00:22:49.650
right?

00:22:49.650 --> 00:22:53.090
Because if a matrix
takes a vector to zero,

00:22:53.090 --> 00:23:01.390
well, there's no way an inverse
can, like, bring it back

00:23:01.390 --> 00:23:03.240
to life.

00:23:03.240 --> 00:23:05.810
My topic is now
the pseudo-inverse,

00:23:05.810 --> 00:23:09.190
and let's just by a
picture, see what's

00:23:09.190 --> 00:23:11.170
the best inverse we could have?

00:23:11.170 --> 00:23:15.820
So, here's a vector
x in the row space.

00:23:15.820 --> 00:23:18.170
I multiply by A.

00:23:18.170 --> 00:23:22.050
Now, the one thing everybody
knows is you take a vector,

00:23:22.050 --> 00:23:25.360
you multiply by A,
and you get an output,

00:23:25.360 --> 00:23:28.220
and where is that output?

00:23:28.220 --> 00:23:31.090
Where is Ax?

00:23:31.090 --> 00:23:35.050
Always in the
column space, right?

00:23:35.050 --> 00:23:37.750
Ax is a combination
of the columns.

00:23:37.750 --> 00:23:39.310
So Ax is somewhere here.

00:23:42.800 --> 00:23:46.750
So I could take all the
vectors in the row space.

00:23:46.750 --> 00:23:49.400
I could multiply them all by A.

00:23:49.400 --> 00:23:53.870
I would get a bunch of
vectors in the column space

00:23:53.870 --> 00:23:59.280
and what I think is, I'd get all
the vectors in the column space

00:23:59.280 --> 00:24:00.670
just right.

00:24:00.670 --> 00:24:03.440
I think that this
connection between an x

00:24:03.440 --> 00:24:07.257
in the row space and an Ax
in the column space, this

00:24:07.257 --> 00:24:07.840
is one-to-one.

00:24:12.160 --> 00:24:14.170
We got a chance, because
they have the same

00:24:14.170 --> 00:24:15.150
dimension.

00:24:15.150 --> 00:24:17.480
That's an r-dimensional
space, and that's

00:24:17.480 --> 00:24:20.060
an r-dimensional space.

00:24:20.060 --> 00:24:22.970
And somehow, the matrix A --

00:24:22.970 --> 00:24:27.260
it's got these null
spaces hanging around,

00:24:27.260 --> 00:24:30.820
where it's knocking vectors to

00:24:30.820 --> 00:24:33.510
And then it's got all the
vectors in between, zero.

00:24:33.510 --> 00:24:35.190
which is almost all vectors.

00:24:35.190 --> 00:24:38.460
Almost all vectors have
a row space component

00:24:38.460 --> 00:24:39.250
and a null space

00:24:39.250 --> 00:24:39.950
component.

00:24:39.950 --> 00:24:42.880
And it's killing the
null space component.

00:24:42.880 --> 00:24:45.690
But if I look at the vectors
that are in the row space,

00:24:45.690 --> 00:24:48.740
with no null space component,
just in the row space,

00:24:48.740 --> 00:24:51.110
then they all go into
the column space,

00:24:51.110 --> 00:24:55.340
so if I put another vector,
let's say, y, in the row space,

00:24:55.340 --> 00:25:02.730
I positive that wherever
Ay is, it won't hit Ax.

00:25:02.730 --> 00:25:04.680
Do you see what I'm saying?

00:25:04.680 --> 00:25:05.830
Let's see why.

00:25:09.340 --> 00:25:09.840
All right.

00:25:09.840 --> 00:25:12.600
So here's what I said.

00:25:12.600 --> 00:25:23.430
If x and y are in the
row space, then A x

00:25:23.430 --> 00:25:27.650
is not the same as A y.

00:25:27.650 --> 00:25:30.110
They're both in the
column space, of course,

00:25:30.110 --> 00:25:31.210
but they're different.

00:25:36.690 --> 00:25:39.780
That would be a perfect
question on a final exam,

00:25:39.780 --> 00:25:45.360
because that's what
I'm teaching you

00:25:45.360 --> 00:25:48.690
in that material
of chapter three

00:25:48.690 --> 00:25:53.920
and chapter four,
especially chapter three.

00:25:53.920 --> 00:25:58.430
If x and y are in the row space,
then Ax is different from Ay.

00:25:58.430 --> 00:26:01.280
So what this means --

00:26:01.280 --> 00:26:03.630
and we'll see why --

00:26:03.630 --> 00:26:09.000
is that, in words, from the
row space to the column space,

00:26:09.000 --> 00:26:12.980
A is perfect, it's
an invertible matrix.

00:26:12.980 --> 00:26:16.700
If we, like, limited
it to those spaces.

00:26:16.700 --> 00:26:19.930
And then, its
inverse will be what

00:26:19.930 --> 00:26:21.290
I'll call the pseudo-inverse.

00:26:21.290 --> 00:26:23.770
So that's that the
pseudo-inverse is.

00:26:23.770 --> 00:26:28.940
It's the inverse -- so A goes
this way, from x to y -- sorry,

00:26:28.940 --> 00:26:35.340
x to A x, from y to A y,
that's A, going that way.

00:26:35.340 --> 00:26:38.910
Then in the other direction,
anything in the column space

00:26:38.910 --> 00:26:41.400
comes from somebody
in the row space,

00:26:41.400 --> 00:26:45.010
and the reverse there is what
I'll call the pseudo-inverse,

00:26:45.010 --> 00:26:51.010
and the accepted
notation is A plus.

00:26:51.010 --> 00:26:55.390
So y will be A plus x.

00:26:55.390 --> 00:26:55.890
I'm sorry.

00:26:55.890 --> 00:27:05.900
No, y will be A plus times
whatever it started with, A y.

00:27:05.900 --> 00:27:09.030
Do you see my picture there?

00:27:09.030 --> 00:27:11.340
Same, of course, for x and A x.

00:27:11.340 --> 00:27:15.280
This way, A does it, the other
way is the pseudo-inverse,

00:27:15.280 --> 00:27:18.430
and the pseudo-inverse
just kills this stuff,

00:27:18.430 --> 00:27:20.360
and the matrix just kills this

00:27:20.360 --> 00:27:20.860
stuff.

00:27:20.860 --> 00:27:25.260
So everything that's really
serious here is going

00:27:25.260 --> 00:27:27.840
on in the row space and
the column space, and now,

00:27:27.840 --> 00:27:31.550
tell me --

00:27:31.550 --> 00:27:34.910
this is the fundamental
fact, that between those two

00:27:34.910 --> 00:27:37.560
r-dimensional spaces,
our matrix is perfect.

00:27:40.900 --> 00:27:41.400
Why?

00:27:44.960 --> 00:27:47.180
Suppose they weren't.

00:27:47.180 --> 00:27:49.230
Why do I get into trouble?

00:27:49.230 --> 00:27:51.780
Suppose -- so, proof.

00:27:51.780 --> 00:27:54.090
I haven't written
down proof very much,

00:27:54.090 --> 00:27:57.640
but I'm going to
use that word once.

00:27:57.640 --> 00:28:00.710
Suppose they were the same.

00:28:00.710 --> 00:28:07.990
Suppose these are supposed
to be two different vectors.

00:28:07.990 --> 00:28:10.540
Maybe I'd better make
the statement correctly.

00:28:10.540 --> 00:28:13.930
If x and y are different
vectors in the row space --

00:28:13.930 --> 00:28:20.790
maybe I'll better put if
x is different from y,

00:28:20.790 --> 00:28:23.370
both in the row space --

00:28:23.370 --> 00:28:25.620
so I'm starting with two
different vectors in the row

00:28:25.620 --> 00:28:29.900
space, I'm multiplying by A --
so these guys are in the column

00:28:29.900 --> 00:28:33.520
space, everybody knows
that, and the point is,

00:28:33.520 --> 00:28:36.980
they're different over there.

00:28:36.980 --> 00:28:38.950
So, suppose they weren't.

00:28:38.950 --> 00:28:40.570
Suppose A x=A y.

00:28:44.940 --> 00:28:48.800
Suppose, well, that's the
same as saying A(x-y) is zero.

00:28:54.960 --> 00:28:57.140
So what?

00:28:57.140 --> 00:29:00.090
So, what do I know
now about (x-y),

00:29:00.090 --> 00:29:03.500
what do I know
about this vector?

00:29:03.500 --> 00:29:07.810
Well, I can see right
away, what space is it in?

00:29:07.810 --> 00:29:10.390
It's sitting in the
null space, right?

00:29:10.390 --> 00:29:11.580
So it's in the null space.

00:29:14.520 --> 00:29:17.030
But what else do
I know about it?

00:29:17.030 --> 00:29:20.950
Here it was x in the row
space, y in the row space,

00:29:20.950 --> 00:29:23.170
what about x-y?

00:29:23.170 --> 00:29:29.870
It's also in the
row space, right?

00:29:29.870 --> 00:29:32.030
Heck, that thing
is a vector space,

00:29:32.030 --> 00:29:35.550
and if the vector space
is anything at all,

00:29:35.550 --> 00:29:38.610
if x is in the row space,
and y is in the row space,

00:29:38.610 --> 00:29:43.040
then the difference is also,
so it's also in the row space.

00:29:47.990 --> 00:29:48.850
So what?

00:29:48.850 --> 00:29:52.420
Now I've got a vector x-y
that's in the null space,

00:29:52.420 --> 00:29:56.270
and that's also in the row
space, so what vector is it?

00:29:56.270 --> 00:29:58.380
It's the zero vector.

00:29:58.380 --> 00:30:00.840
So I would conclude
from that that x-y

00:30:00.840 --> 00:30:07.200
had to be the zero vector,
x-y, so, in other words,

00:30:07.200 --> 00:30:09.120
if I start from two
different vectors,

00:30:09.120 --> 00:30:11.480
I get two different vectors.

00:30:11.480 --> 00:30:14.020
If these vectors are the
same, then those vectors

00:30:14.020 --> 00:30:16.050
had to be the same.

00:30:16.050 --> 00:30:21.600
That's like the algebra proof,
which we understand completely

00:30:21.600 --> 00:30:28.230
because we really understand
these subspaces of what

00:30:28.230 --> 00:30:32.480
I said in words, that
a matrix A is really

00:30:32.480 --> 00:30:37.560
a nice, invertible mapping
from row space to columns pace.

00:30:37.560 --> 00:30:40.160
If the null spaces
keep out of the way,

00:30:40.160 --> 00:30:43.200
then we have an inverse.

00:30:43.200 --> 00:30:46.840
And that inverse is
called the pseudo inverse,

00:30:46.840 --> 00:30:51.410
and it's a very, very,
useful in application.

00:30:51.410 --> 00:30:54.360
Statisticians
discovered, oh boy, this

00:30:54.360 --> 00:30:56.580
is the thing that we
needed all our lives,

00:30:56.580 --> 00:30:59.100
and here it finally showed
up, the pseudo-inverse

00:30:59.100 --> 00:31:02.070
is the right thing.

00:31:02.070 --> 00:31:04.300
Why do statisticians need it?

00:31:04.300 --> 00:31:11.360
And because statisticians
are like least-squares-happy.

00:31:11.360 --> 00:31:14.440
I mean they're always
doing least squares.

00:31:14.440 --> 00:31:20.700
And so this is their
central linear regression.

00:31:20.700 --> 00:31:22.920
Statisticians who may
watch this on video,

00:31:22.920 --> 00:31:28.940
please forgive that
description of your interests.

00:31:28.940 --> 00:31:35.170
One of your interests is linear
regression and this problem.

00:31:35.170 --> 00:31:41.150
But this problem is only OK
provided we have full column

00:31:41.150 --> 00:31:42.080
rank.

00:31:42.080 --> 00:31:46.810
And statisticians have to worry
all the time about, oh, God,

00:31:46.810 --> 00:31:49.900
maybe we just repeated
an experiment.

00:31:49.900 --> 00:31:52.220
You know, you're taking
all these measurements,

00:31:52.220 --> 00:31:54.750
maybe you just repeat
them a few times.

00:31:54.750 --> 00:31:56.730
You know, maybe they're
not independent.

00:31:56.730 --> 00:32:00.910
Well, in that case, that
A transpose A matrix

00:32:00.910 --> 00:32:04.230
that they depend on
becomes singular.

00:32:04.230 --> 00:32:06.890
So then that's when they
needed the pseudo-inverse,

00:32:06.890 --> 00:32:09.180
it just arrived at
the right moment,

00:32:09.180 --> 00:32:13.840
and it's the right quantity.

00:32:13.840 --> 00:32:14.440
OK.

00:32:14.440 --> 00:32:21.590
So now that you know what the
pseudo-inverse should do, let

00:32:21.590 --> 00:32:25.080
me see what it is.

00:32:25.080 --> 00:32:27.010
Can we find it?

00:32:27.010 --> 00:32:30.170
So this is my -- to
complete the lecture is --

00:32:30.170 --> 00:32:42.740
how do I find this
pseudo-inverse A plus?

00:32:42.740 --> 00:32:45.310
OK.

00:32:45.310 --> 00:32:46.340
OK.

00:32:46.340 --> 00:32:48.170
Well, here's one way.

00:32:50.710 --> 00:32:53.860
Everything I do today is
to try to review stuff.

00:32:53.860 --> 00:33:00.770
One way would be to
start from the SVD.

00:33:00.770 --> 00:33:02.630
The Singular Value
Decomposition.

00:33:02.630 --> 00:33:05.380
And you remember
that that factored A

00:33:05.380 --> 00:33:10.480
into an orthogonal matrix
times this diagonal matrix

00:33:10.480 --> 00:33:12.500
times this orthogonal matrix.

00:33:12.500 --> 00:33:16.330
But what did that
diagonal guy look like?

00:33:16.330 --> 00:33:25.510
This diagonal guy, sigma,
has some non-zeroes,

00:33:25.510 --> 00:33:28.280
and you remember, they
came from A transpose A,

00:33:28.280 --> 00:33:31.400
and A A transpose, these
are the good guys, and then

00:33:31.400 --> 00:33:34.680
some more zeroes, and all zeroes
there, and all zeroes there.

00:33:38.110 --> 00:33:41.700
So you can guess what
the pseudo-inverse is,

00:33:41.700 --> 00:33:45.030
I just invert stuff that's
nice to invert -- well,

00:33:45.030 --> 00:33:47.280
what's the
pseudo-inverse of this?

00:33:47.280 --> 00:33:50.610
That's what the
problem comes down to.

00:33:50.610 --> 00:33:55.310
What's the pseudo-inverse of
this beautiful diagonal matrix?

00:33:55.310 --> 00:33:58.380
But it's got a
null space, right?

00:33:58.380 --> 00:34:01.480
What's the rank of this matrix?

00:34:01.480 --> 00:34:06.420
What's the rank of
this diagonal matrix?

00:34:06.420 --> 00:34:07.430
r, of course.

00:34:07.430 --> 00:34:09.790
It's got r non-zeroes,
and then it's otherwise,

00:34:09.790 --> 00:34:10.780
zip.

00:34:10.780 --> 00:34:21.000
So it's got n columns, it's got
m rows, and it's got rank r.

00:34:21.000 --> 00:34:23.989
It's the best example, the
simplest example we could ever

00:34:23.989 --> 00:34:28.089
have of our general setup.

00:34:31.179 --> 00:34:31.699
OK?

00:34:31.699 --> 00:34:36.800
So what's the pseudo-inverse?

00:34:36.800 --> 00:34:39.020
What's the matrix --

00:34:39.020 --> 00:34:41.296
so I'll erase our columns,
because right below it,

00:34:41.296 --> 00:34:42.754
I want to write
the pseudo-inverse.

00:34:46.199 --> 00:34:49.179
OK, you can make a
pretty darn good guess.

00:34:49.179 --> 00:34:53.170
If it was a proper diagonal
matrix, invertible,

00:34:53.170 --> 00:34:57.000
if there weren't any zeroes
down here, if it was sigma one

00:34:57.000 --> 00:35:01.010
to sigma n, then everybody
knows what the inverse would be,

00:35:01.010 --> 00:35:08.760
the inverse would be one over
sigma one, down to one over s-

00:35:08.760 --> 00:35:13.340
but of course, I'll
have to stop at sigma r.

00:35:13.340 --> 00:35:17.350
And, it will be the rest,
zeroes again, of course.

00:35:17.350 --> 00:35:22.620
And now this one was
m by n, and this one

00:35:22.620 --> 00:35:25.340
is meant to have a slightly
different, you know,

00:35:25.340 --> 00:35:29.230
transpose shape, n by m.

00:35:29.230 --> 00:35:31.740
They both have that rank r.

00:35:39.820 --> 00:35:45.350
My idea is that the
pseudo-inverse is the best --

00:35:45.350 --> 00:35:48.200
is the closest I can
come to an inverse.

00:35:48.200 --> 00:35:53.220
So what is sigma times
its pseudo-inverse?

00:35:53.220 --> 00:35:56.020
Can you multiply sigma
by its pseudo-inverse?

00:35:56.020 --> 00:35:57.920
Multiply that by that?

00:35:57.920 --> 00:35:59.130
What matrix do you get?

00:36:05.040 --> 00:36:07.280
They're diagonal.

00:36:07.280 --> 00:36:10.200
Rectangular, of course.

00:36:10.200 --> 00:36:18.780
But of course, we're
going to get ones, R ones,

00:36:18.780 --> 00:36:20.590
and all the rest, zeroes.

00:36:20.590 --> 00:36:24.420
And the shape of that, this
whole matrix will be m by

00:36:24.420 --> 00:36:25.780
m.

00:36:25.780 --> 00:36:30.200
And suppose I did it
in the other order.

00:36:30.200 --> 00:36:32.067
Suppose I did sigma plus sigma.

00:36:32.067 --> 00:36:33.525
Why don't I do it
right underneath?

00:36:38.190 --> 00:36:40.500
in the opposite order?

00:36:40.500 --> 00:36:42.640
See, this matrix hasn't
got a left-inverse,

00:36:42.640 --> 00:36:45.170
it hasn't got a right-inverse,
but every matrix

00:36:45.170 --> 00:36:46.590
has got a pseudo-inverse.

00:36:46.590 --> 00:36:51.300
If I do it in the order sigma
plus sigma, what do I get?

00:36:51.300 --> 00:36:55.920
Square matrix, this is
m by n, this is m by m,

00:36:55.920 --> 00:37:01.590
my result is going to m by
m -- is going to be n by n,

00:37:01.590 --> 00:37:03.030
and what is it?

00:37:05.930 --> 00:37:08.260
Those are diagonal
matrices, it's

00:37:08.260 --> 00:37:10.600
going to be ones,
and then zeroes.

00:37:14.670 --> 00:37:19.020
It's not the same as that,
it's a different size --

00:37:19.020 --> 00:37:22.090
it's a projection.

00:37:22.090 --> 00:37:25.560
One is a projection matrix
onto the column space,

00:37:25.560 --> 00:37:30.590
and this one is the projection
matrix onto the row space.

00:37:30.590 --> 00:37:35.470
That's the best that
pseudo-inverse can do.

00:37:35.470 --> 00:37:38.030
So what the
pseudo-inverse does is,

00:37:38.030 --> 00:37:41.050
if you multiply on the left,
you don't get the identity,

00:37:41.050 --> 00:37:42.510
if you multiply
on the right, you

00:37:42.510 --> 00:37:46.080
don't get the identity, what
you get is the projection.

00:37:46.080 --> 00:37:51.300
It brings you into the two
good spaces, the row space

00:37:51.300 --> 00:37:52.760
and column space.

00:37:52.760 --> 00:37:55.240
And it just wipes
out the null space.

00:37:55.240 --> 00:37:57.800
So that's what the
pseudo-inverse of this diagonal

00:37:57.800 --> 00:38:04.710
one is, and then the
pseudo-inverse of A itself --

00:38:04.710 --> 00:38:06.290
this is perfectly invertible.

00:38:06.290 --> 00:38:09.180
What's the inverse
of V transpose?

00:38:09.180 --> 00:38:11.800
Just another tiny bit of review.

00:38:11.800 --> 00:38:18.590
That's an orthogonal matrix,
and its inverse is V, good.

00:38:18.590 --> 00:38:21.360
This guy has got all
the trouble in it,

00:38:21.360 --> 00:38:25.940
all the null space
is responsible for,

00:38:25.940 --> 00:38:28.610
so it doesn't have
a true inverse,

00:38:28.610 --> 00:38:32.010
it has a pseudo-inverse,
and then the inverse of U

00:38:32.010 --> 00:38:37.320
is U transpose, thanks.

00:38:37.320 --> 00:38:40.200
Or, of course, I
could write U inverse.

00:38:40.200 --> 00:38:43.640
So, that's the question of, how
do you find the pseudo-inverse

00:38:43.640 --> 00:38:45.110
--

00:38:45.110 --> 00:38:49.350
so what statisticians do
when they're in this --

00:38:49.350 --> 00:38:54.980
so this is like the case of
where least squares breaks down

00:38:54.980 --> 00:38:58.420
because the rank is --
you don't have full rank,

00:38:58.420 --> 00:39:05.020
and the beauty of the singular
value decomposition is,

00:39:05.020 --> 00:39:09.620
it puts all the problems into
this diagonal matrix where

00:39:09.620 --> 00:39:10.980
it's clear what to do.

00:39:10.980 --> 00:39:13.960
It's the best inverse you
could think of is clear.

00:39:13.960 --> 00:39:16.430
You see there could be other --

00:39:16.430 --> 00:39:18.720
I mean, we could put
some stuff down here,

00:39:18.720 --> 00:39:20.980
it would multiply these zeroes.

00:39:20.980 --> 00:39:27.270
It wouldn't have any effect,
but then the good pseudo-inverse

00:39:27.270 --> 00:39:33.290
is the one with no extra
stuff, it's sort of, like,

00:39:33.290 --> 00:39:36.430
as small as possible.

00:39:36.430 --> 00:39:41.040
It has to have those
to produce the ones.

00:39:41.040 --> 00:39:46.260
If it had other stuff, it
would just be a larger matrix,

00:39:46.260 --> 00:39:51.050
so this pseudo-inverse is kind
of the minimal matrix that

00:39:51.050 --> 00:39:53.960
gives the best result.

00:39:53.960 --> 00:39:57.250
Sigma sigma plus being r ones.

00:39:57.250 --> 00:39:59.710
SK.

00:39:59.710 --> 00:40:03.122
so I guess I'm hoping --

00:40:03.122 --> 00:40:04.830
pseudo-inverse, again,
let me repeat what

00:40:04.830 --> 00:40:06.038
I said at the very beginning.

00:40:09.080 --> 00:40:11.990
This pseudo-inverse,
which appears

00:40:11.990 --> 00:40:17.700
at the end, which is in
section seven point four,

00:40:17.700 --> 00:40:24.090
and probably I did more with
it here than I did in the book.

00:40:24.090 --> 00:40:28.460
The word pseudo-inverse will
not appear on an exam in this

00:40:28.460 --> 00:40:34.900
course, but I think if you
see this all will appear,

00:40:34.900 --> 00:40:40.010
because this is all what the
course was about, chapters one,

00:40:40.010 --> 00:40:41.527
two, three, four --

00:40:44.150 --> 00:40:47.900
but if you see all that,
then you probably see,

00:40:47.900 --> 00:40:51.810
well, OK, the general case
had both null spaces around,

00:40:51.810 --> 00:40:56.470
and this is the
natural thing to do.

00:40:56.470 --> 00:41:01.190
So, this is one way to
find the pseudo-inverse.

00:41:01.190 --> 00:41:03.500
Yes.

00:41:03.500 --> 00:41:07.260
The point of a pseudo-inverse,
of computing a pseudo-inverse

00:41:07.260 --> 00:41:10.220
is to get some factors
where you can find

00:41:10.220 --> 00:41:12.000
the pseudo-inverse quickly.

00:41:12.000 --> 00:41:15.720
And this is, like, the
champion, because this

00:41:15.720 --> 00:41:20.850
is where we can invert
those, and those two, easily,

00:41:20.850 --> 00:41:26.560
just by transposing, and we
know what to do with a diagonal.

00:41:26.560 --> 00:41:33.210
OK, that's as much
review, maybe --

00:41:33.210 --> 00:41:37.920
let's have a five-minute holiday
in 18.06 and, I'll see you

00:41:37.920 --> 00:41:40.060
Wednesday, then,
for the rest of this

00:41:40.060 --> 00:41:40.560
course.

00:41:40.560 --> 00:41:42.110
Thanks.