WEBVTT 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:03.360 align:middle line:84% [SQUEAKING] [RUSTLING] [CLICKING] 00:00:03.360 --> 00:00:10.952 align:middle line:90% 00:00:10.952 --> 00:00:11.910 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: All right. 00:00:11.910 --> 00:00:16.410 align:middle line:84% So we had quite a bit of reading today. 00:00:16.410 --> 00:00:20.610 align:middle line:84% Chapter 1-- and we're going to start with Baker, Introduction 00:00:20.610 --> 00:00:23.490 align:middle line:84% to Old English, and move on to the little bit of reading 00:00:23.490 --> 00:00:27.600 align:middle line:84% that you had in Mitchell and Robinson. 00:00:27.600 --> 00:00:36.120 align:middle line:84% So chapter 1 on the Anglo-Saxons and their language, this 00:00:36.120 --> 00:00:42.000 align:middle line:84% mostly just went into quite a bit more depth, a deeper 00:00:42.000 --> 00:00:47.790 align:middle line:84% version of my very quick snapshot, micro-history lesson 00:00:47.790 --> 00:00:51.370 align:middle line:90% from the first day of class. 00:00:51.370 --> 00:00:54.450 align:middle line:84% Any questions about chapter 1, about Introduction 00:00:54.450 --> 00:00:56.550 align:middle line:84% to Old English, Baker, chapter 1? 00:00:56.550 --> 00:01:04.214 align:middle line:90% 00:01:04.214 --> 00:01:05.180 align:middle line:90% AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]. 00:01:05.180 --> 00:01:06.410 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: Yeah, go ahead. 00:01:06.410 --> 00:01:09.330 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: So I was kind of confused between-- 00:01:09.330 --> 00:01:11.870 align:middle line:90% 00:01:11.870 --> 00:01:20.255 align:middle line:84% I think, in general, some of the cases they mentioned, like, 00:01:20.255 --> 00:01:21.380 align:middle line:90% for the instrumental case-- 00:01:21.380 --> 00:01:23.150 align:middle line:84% ARTHUR BAHR: Oh, that's not in chapter 1. 00:01:23.150 --> 00:01:23.867 align:middle line:90% AUDIENCE: Oh. 00:01:23.867 --> 00:01:25.700 align:middle line:84% ARTHUR BAHR: Chapter 1 was just the history. 00:01:25.700 --> 00:01:26.908 align:middle line:90% We're going through in order. 00:01:26.908 --> 00:01:29.900 align:middle line:84% So everybody please take out their Baker textbook 00:01:29.900 --> 00:01:32.240 align:middle line:84% because we need this, whether you 00:01:32.240 --> 00:01:40.190 align:middle line:84% have the opening files from on Canvas or soon the book itself. 00:01:40.190 --> 00:01:43.670 align:middle line:84% All right, so chapter 1 was just the history. 00:01:43.670 --> 00:01:48.550 align:middle line:84% Chapter 2, pronunciation-- so I'm 00:01:48.550 --> 00:01:54.550 align:middle line:84% going to go through the greatest hits of this chapter 00:01:54.550 --> 00:01:56.020 align:middle line:90% and chapters 3 and 4. 00:01:56.020 --> 00:02:01.945 align:middle line:84% And then I'll take questions as they arise. 00:02:01.945 --> 00:02:04.970 align:middle line:90% 00:02:04.970 --> 00:02:08.320 align:middle line:84% One of the most important things on page 12 00:02:08.320 --> 00:02:14.290 align:middle line:84% is that length, vowel length, is important in pronunciation. 00:02:14.290 --> 00:02:21.790 align:middle line:84% So when you see this long mark over the E of hē, 00:02:21.790 --> 00:02:26.710 align:middle line:84% you really actually hold it, hē, as in longer than 00:02:26.710 --> 00:02:29.110 align:middle line:84% if it did not have that long mark. 00:02:29.110 --> 00:02:30.610 align:middle line:90% So listen to yourself. 00:02:30.610 --> 00:02:36.340 align:middle line:84% They give a good example in the parenthetical on page 12. 00:02:36.340 --> 00:02:39.850 align:middle line:84% Listen to yourself as you pronounce beat and bead. 00:02:39.850 --> 00:02:45.040 align:middle line:84% We naturally hold the E longer when we say bead versus beat. 00:02:45.040 --> 00:02:48.520 align:middle line:84% And that's the kind of difference in length 00:02:48.520 --> 00:02:50.200 align:middle line:84% that you're going to want to observe 00:02:50.200 --> 00:02:58.000 align:middle line:84% when you say a long vowel versus a short vowel in Old English. 00:02:58.000 --> 00:02:59.950 align:middle line:90% Vowels in Old English-- 00:02:59.950 --> 00:03:02.230 align:middle line:84% Old English has seven vowels, functionally. 00:03:02.230 --> 00:03:07.150 align:middle line:84% It has the five that we're aware of plus ash and Y. 00:03:07.150 --> 00:03:09.010 align:middle line:90% And they are pronounced-- 00:03:09.010 --> 00:03:11.950 align:middle line:84% I'm going down the list here on page 13-- 00:03:11.950 --> 00:03:18.220 align:middle line:84% [a], [æ], [e], [i], [o], [u], [y]. 00:03:18.220 --> 00:03:21.130 align:middle line:90% So the only hard-- 00:03:21.130 --> 00:03:24.700 align:middle line:84% or the only non-modern English sound of those 00:03:24.700 --> 00:03:31.120 align:middle line:84% is the last one, the Y, which is pronounced y, as if you're 00:03:31.120 --> 00:03:34.450 align:middle line:90% saying [French] tu or dur. 00:03:34.450 --> 00:03:41.140 align:middle line:84% So cyning, not "kinning," cyning, king, bryd, bride. 00:03:41.140 --> 00:03:43.840 align:middle line:84% The other most important thing about these vowels 00:03:43.840 --> 00:03:46.840 align:middle line:84% is the ash, that ae ligature, which, 00:03:46.840 --> 00:03:52.790 align:middle line:84% when I write it on the board, I'll write like that. 00:03:52.790 --> 00:03:59.490 align:middle line:84% This vowel is always pronounced [æ], as in cat. 00:03:59.490 --> 00:04:02.190 align:middle line:84% Make sure to pronounce it that way 00:04:02.190 --> 00:04:03.810 align:middle line:90% even when it's hard to do so. 00:04:03.810 --> 00:04:08.680 align:middle line:84% So hwæt, that first word of that first email 00:04:08.680 --> 00:04:12.160 align:middle line:84% I sent you at the beginning of the semester, that 00:04:12.160 --> 00:04:17.579 align:middle line:90% becomes modern English what. 00:04:17.579 --> 00:04:21.490 align:middle line:90% Hwæt is not that hard to say. 00:04:21.490 --> 00:04:28.980 align:middle line:84% Hwær, however, the Old English word for where, is hard to say. 00:04:28.980 --> 00:04:31.695 align:middle line:84% But, still, stay with me in duck land-- æ æ 00:04:31.695 --> 00:04:34.400 align:middle line:84% æ, quack quack quack, hwær-- even 00:04:34.400 --> 00:04:39.350 align:middle line:90% when it's hard, hwær, all right? 00:04:39.350 --> 00:04:43.370 align:middle line:84% You don't need to worry about ie, that last of those 00:04:43.370 --> 00:04:47.570 align:middle line:90% vowels on page 13. 00:04:47.570 --> 00:04:50.300 align:middle line:84% One last thing at the bottom of page 13-- 00:04:50.300 --> 00:04:55.700 align:middle line:84% and it's hard to do because our modern English inclination 00:04:55.700 --> 00:05:00.530 align:middle line:84% to not pronounce final vowels precisely, 00:05:00.530 --> 00:05:04.160 align:middle line:84% final unaccented vowels precisely, is so strong. 00:05:04.160 --> 00:05:07.880 align:middle line:84% We tend to reduce everything to a schwa, that neutral "uh" 00:05:07.880 --> 00:05:09.320 align:middle line:90% sound. 00:05:09.320 --> 00:05:13.190 align:middle line:84% But it is important because, in Old English, 00:05:13.190 --> 00:05:16.280 align:middle line:84% that dative singular cyninge ends 00:05:16.280 --> 00:05:20.090 align:middle line:84% in an e, versus genitive plural cyninga. 00:05:20.090 --> 00:05:22.280 align:middle line:84% That last vowel, that is the only way 00:05:22.280 --> 00:05:25.400 align:middle line:84% to distinguish those two different versions 00:05:25.400 --> 00:05:26.370 align:middle line:90% of that word. 00:05:26.370 --> 00:05:28.770 align:middle line:84% So just when you're reading out loud, 00:05:28.770 --> 00:05:36.450 align:middle line:84% try to distinguish those vowels at the ends of words. 00:05:36.450 --> 00:05:40.750 align:middle line:90% Diphthongs, on page 14-- 00:05:40.750 --> 00:05:42.640 align:middle line:84% the most important thing to remember here 00:05:42.640 --> 00:05:46.780 align:middle line:84% is to really say these as one syllable, not two syllables. 00:05:46.780 --> 00:05:52.870 align:middle line:84% So Bēowulf, that E-O of Bēowulf, that should be-- 00:05:52.870 --> 00:05:54.550 align:middle line:90% the name is two syllables-- 00:05:54.550 --> 00:05:57.310 align:middle line:90% Bēo-wulf. 00:05:57.310 --> 00:06:03.400 align:middle line:84% The E-A represents a diphthong that started with [æ] 00:06:03.400 --> 00:06:05.560 align:middle line:90% and glided to [a]. 00:06:05.560 --> 00:06:07.810 align:middle line:84% This is hard to do in modern English. 00:06:07.810 --> 00:06:10.660 align:middle line:84% There's a reason that we don't pronounce words like this 00:06:10.660 --> 00:06:12.010 align:middle line:90% anymore. 00:06:12.010 --> 00:06:17.230 align:middle line:84% But that word, feallan, rēad, I was 00:06:17.230 --> 00:06:21.370 align:middle line:84% taught to pronounce it E-A rather than ash-A. E-A is 00:06:21.370 --> 00:06:23.380 align:middle line:90% a lot easier to say, frankly. 00:06:23.380 --> 00:06:29.410 align:middle line:84% But try the ash-A and see if you can get it into your voice. 00:06:29.410 --> 00:06:30.850 align:middle line:90% So feallan, rēad. 00:06:30.850 --> 00:06:34.480 align:middle line:90% 00:06:34.480 --> 00:06:35.290 align:middle line:90% Yeah, Tara? 00:06:35.290 --> 00:06:36.280 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: Sorry, what page is this? 00:06:36.280 --> 00:06:37.238 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: Top of 14. 00:06:37.238 --> 00:06:40.790 align:middle line:90% 00:06:40.790 --> 00:06:42.640 align:middle line:90% All right. 00:06:42.640 --> 00:06:46.610 align:middle line:84% Any questions about vowels or diphthongs? 00:06:46.610 --> 00:06:49.660 align:middle line:90% 00:06:49.660 --> 00:06:52.120 align:middle line:84% All right, consonants, I'm not going to go over 00:06:52.120 --> 00:06:57.320 align:middle line:90% all of these in detail. 00:06:57.320 --> 00:06:59.230 align:middle line:84% The most important thing to remember 00:06:59.230 --> 00:07:02.300 align:middle line:84% is just that there are no silent consonants. 00:07:02.300 --> 00:07:08.440 align:middle line:84% So if it's there on the page, say the letter. 00:07:08.440 --> 00:07:11.150 align:middle line:90% Let's see. 00:07:11.150 --> 00:07:13.430 align:middle line:84% I think the most challenging ones-- 00:07:13.430 --> 00:07:15.860 align:middle line:84% and we'll get to these in a little bit. 00:07:15.860 --> 00:07:20.540 align:middle line:84% The most challenging ones are the C and the G, 00:07:20.540 --> 00:07:24.000 align:middle line:84% just because they have such a range of pronunciation. 00:07:24.000 --> 00:07:27.680 align:middle line:90% C, this is number 6 on page 15-- 00:07:27.680 --> 00:07:33.170 align:middle line:84% C is pronounced [k] when it has no little dot over it and [tʃ] 00:07:33.170 --> 00:07:35.540 align:middle line:90% if it does. 00:07:35.540 --> 00:07:39.200 align:middle line:84% But it's never pronounced [s], all right? 00:07:39.200 --> 00:07:41.960 align:middle line:90% G is trickier. 00:07:41.960 --> 00:07:43.970 align:middle line:90% So G has several options. 00:07:43.970 --> 00:07:47.360 align:middle line:84% Dotless G is pronounced [g], as you would expect, 00:07:47.360 --> 00:07:50.810 align:middle line:84% when it comes at the beginning of a word or a syllable. 00:07:50.810 --> 00:07:56.420 align:middle line:84% Between voiceless sounds, dotless G is pronounced [ɣ]. 00:07:56.420 --> 00:08:04.540 align:middle line:84% So like dagas, this G, you just sort of swallow it. 00:08:04.540 --> 00:08:08.820 align:middle line:84% So instead of [dagas], it's like [daɣas]. 00:08:08.820 --> 00:08:11.280 align:middle line:90% Everyone try, that [daɣas]. 00:08:11.280 --> 00:08:12.030 align:middle line:90% [daɣas]? 00:08:12.030 --> 00:08:14.610 align:middle line:84% Yeah, OK, we'll get practice later on. 00:08:14.610 --> 00:08:20.700 align:middle line:84% C-G is pronounced [dʒ], so hrycg, brycg, ecg-- 00:08:20.700 --> 00:08:23.280 align:middle line:90% number 8. 00:08:23.280 --> 00:08:26.880 align:middle line:84% And H is always H at the beginning. 00:08:26.880 --> 00:08:37.139 align:middle line:84% But at the end, it has that [x] sound, so dweorh for "dwarf." 00:08:37.139 --> 00:08:39.659 align:middle line:90% 00:08:39.659 --> 00:08:43.230 align:middle line:84% And S-C is usually pronounced [ʃ]. 00:08:43.230 --> 00:08:47.640 align:middle line:84% So what looks like "skip" is actually [ʃip]. 00:08:47.640 --> 00:08:54.450 align:middle line:84% What looks like "ask" is actually [æʃ], wȳscan-- 00:08:54.450 --> 00:08:55.710 align:middle line:90% There are a few-- 00:08:55.710 --> 00:08:57.930 align:middle line:84% there are a few exceptions to this. 00:08:57.930 --> 00:09:03.910 align:middle line:90% But that's pretty safe. 00:09:03.910 --> 00:09:05.530 align:middle line:90% Any questions on these? 00:09:05.530 --> 00:09:08.800 align:middle line:84% We'll get practice as we all read aloud together. 00:09:08.800 --> 00:09:12.280 align:middle line:84% Oh, by the way, I did put up a video 00:09:12.280 --> 00:09:15.460 align:middle line:84% of me reading the Old English rune poem on Canvas. 00:09:15.460 --> 00:09:17.200 align:middle line:84% So if you haven't checked that out, 00:09:17.200 --> 00:09:19.660 align:middle line:84% it's a good way to just get the sound 00:09:19.660 --> 00:09:25.870 align:middle line:84% of Old English in your ears as you're working at home. 00:09:25.870 --> 00:09:28.330 align:middle line:84% All right, so more about vowels now, 00:09:28.330 --> 00:09:33.190 align:middle line:84% 2.2, at the bottom of page 16, leading into 17. 00:09:33.190 --> 00:09:37.570 align:middle line:90% I-mutation, on page 17-- 00:09:37.570 --> 00:09:40.970 align:middle line:84% I-mutation is a shift in the quality of a vowel 00:09:40.970 --> 00:09:44.680 align:middle line:84% so it's pronounced with the tongue higher and farther 00:09:44.680 --> 00:09:47.140 align:middle line:90% forward than usual. 00:09:47.140 --> 00:09:51.520 align:middle line:84% And there's actually a useful diagram 00:09:51.520 --> 00:09:53.980 align:middle line:90% in Mitchell and Robinson-- 00:09:53.980 --> 00:09:57.340 align:middle line:84% on page 22 of Mitchell and Robinson. 00:09:57.340 --> 00:10:03.940 align:middle line:84% It has a diagram of where in the mouth 00:10:03.940 --> 00:10:07.110 align:middle line:84% the tongue is located when these vowels are pronounced. 00:10:07.110 --> 00:10:08.380 align:middle line:90% You might find it useful. 00:10:08.380 --> 00:10:13.300 align:middle line:84% What's nice about table 2.1 is that it gives you 00:10:13.300 --> 00:10:17.530 align:middle line:84% the kind of key for how unmutated vowels become 00:10:17.530 --> 00:10:18.910 align:middle line:90% mutated vowels. 00:10:18.910 --> 00:10:21.580 align:middle line:84% You do not need to memorize this table. 00:10:21.580 --> 00:10:23.230 align:middle line:84% It will never show up on a quiz . 00:10:23.230 --> 00:10:27.730 align:middle line:84% But I do encourage you to practice making those sounds, 00:10:27.730 --> 00:10:35.560 align:middle line:84% those shifts from [a] to [æ], [æ] to [e], [e] to [i], 00:10:35.560 --> 00:10:38.350 align:middle line:90% [o] to [e], [u] to [y]. 00:10:38.350 --> 00:10:41.560 align:middle line:84% The reason for doing that is because it will help 00:10:41.560 --> 00:10:48.310 align:middle line:84% you recognize a lot of irregular Old English nouns 00:10:48.310 --> 00:10:50.320 align:middle line:90% take I-mutation in the plural. 00:10:50.320 --> 00:10:55.030 align:middle line:84% This is how we go from mouse to mice, goose to geese. 00:10:55.030 --> 00:10:59.480 align:middle line:90% That's the process. 00:10:59.480 --> 00:11:04.190 align:middle line:84% And you can see goose, that O becomes E. Anyway, 00:11:04.190 --> 00:11:08.420 align:middle line:84% don't need to worry about it too much right now, though. 00:11:08.420 --> 00:11:11.150 align:middle line:84% One little point I will note on page 18, 00:11:11.150 --> 00:11:18.140 align:middle line:84% though, is that some modern English words have-- 00:11:18.140 --> 00:11:26.360 align:middle line:84% the way that I-mutation works often leads to ash turning 00:11:26.360 --> 00:11:30.830 align:middle line:84% into E-A. So for example, you see hælan, 00:11:30.830 --> 00:11:33.035 align:middle line:90% hælan becomes there-- 00:11:33.035 --> 00:11:36.390 align:middle line:90% 00:11:36.390 --> 00:11:40.050 align:middle line:84% that will become heal in modern English. 00:11:40.050 --> 00:11:47.430 align:middle line:84% Similarly, ræd will become read in modern English. 00:11:47.430 --> 00:11:49.320 align:middle line:84% Again, not something you need to memorize, 00:11:49.320 --> 00:11:50.970 align:middle line:90% but just something to know. 00:11:50.970 --> 00:11:54.780 align:middle line:84% If you're guessing about the meaning of a word 00:11:54.780 --> 00:12:00.420 align:middle line:84% and you see an ash, try turning it into an E-A 00:12:00.420 --> 00:12:02.940 align:middle line:90% and see if it makes sense. 00:12:02.940 --> 00:12:06.690 align:middle line:84% This process, by the way, whereby the vowel 00:12:06.690 --> 00:12:10.260 align:middle line:84% changes but the consonants don't, that's 00:12:10.260 --> 00:12:16.320 align:middle line:84% very typical of the linguistic evolution of English. 00:12:16.320 --> 00:12:20.130 align:middle line:84% Vowels are much, much more inclined to change 00:12:20.130 --> 00:12:22.200 align:middle line:84% than consonants, which is not to say 00:12:22.200 --> 00:12:23.430 align:middle line:90% that consonants don't change. 00:12:23.430 --> 00:12:24.450 align:middle line:90% They do. 00:12:24.450 --> 00:12:25.950 align:middle line:84% But it's just something to remember. 00:12:25.950 --> 00:12:29.240 align:middle line:90% 00:12:29.240 --> 00:12:30.365 align:middle line:90% Any questions so far? 00:12:30.365 --> 00:12:33.190 align:middle line:90% 00:12:33.190 --> 00:12:40.570 align:middle line:84% All right, page 19, take a look at the middle 00:12:40.570 --> 00:12:43.990 align:middle line:84% of the page, the fuller explanation-- 00:12:43.990 --> 00:12:47.590 align:middle line:84% well, top-ish and middle of the page, 00:12:47.590 --> 00:12:53.800 align:middle line:84% these fuller explanations of C and especially G. I've already 00:12:53.800 --> 00:13:00.310 align:middle line:84% gone over the difference in G word initial as gōd, glæd, 00:13:00.310 --> 00:13:05.350 align:middle line:84% versus the kind of swallowed G of dagas. 00:13:05.350 --> 00:13:09.250 align:middle line:90% 00:13:09.250 --> 00:13:13.720 align:middle line:84% Very importantly, that dotted G is 00:13:13.720 --> 00:13:18.550 align:middle line:90% almost always pronounced [j]. 00:13:18.550 --> 00:13:25.900 align:middle line:84% So ġiestrandæġ for "yesterday," sleġen, "slain," mæġ, 00:13:25.900 --> 00:13:28.705 align:middle line:84% "may," segl, meaning "sail," seġlode. 00:13:28.705 --> 00:13:31.600 align:middle line:90% 00:13:31.600 --> 00:13:38.930 align:middle line:84% The only difference really is when you have N and then dotted 00:13:38.930 --> 00:13:40.100 align:middle line:90% G right after it. 00:13:40.100 --> 00:13:44.712 align:middle line:84% It's pronounced just like in modern English "angel": senġe. 00:13:44.712 --> 00:13:48.600 align:middle line:90% 00:13:48.600 --> 00:13:55.180 align:middle line:84% And then I think that's about it that-- 00:13:55.180 --> 00:13:58.900 align:middle line:84% oh, accentuation, this is also important, bottom of page 20. 00:13:58.900 --> 00:14:01.610 align:middle line:90% This makes life so much easier. 00:14:01.610 --> 00:14:05.710 align:middle line:84% All Old English words are accented on the first syllable, 00:14:05.710 --> 00:14:07.480 align:middle line:90% except-- 00:14:07.480 --> 00:14:10.270 align:middle line:84% it's a pretty limited exception-- 00:14:10.270 --> 00:14:18.250 align:middle line:84% words with that prefix G-E, or the ġe- -- this prefix. 00:14:18.250 --> 00:14:21.610 align:middle line:84% Here, we accent the second syllable. 00:14:21.610 --> 00:14:27.190 align:middle line:84% But other than that, everything is pronounced 00:14:27.190 --> 00:14:28.375 align:middle line:90% on the first syllable. 00:14:28.375 --> 00:14:31.060 align:middle line:90% 00:14:31.060 --> 00:14:39.790 align:middle line:84% The only other exception to that is that verbs with prefixes 00:14:39.790 --> 00:14:42.500 align:middle line:90% are accented after the prefix. 00:14:42.500 --> 00:14:45.370 align:middle line:84% So the examples that they give down there-- 00:14:45.370 --> 00:14:48.660 align:middle line:84% forwéarðan accented on the second syllable. 00:14:48.660 --> 00:14:52.380 align:middle line:84% But the noun derived from it, fórwyrd, 00:14:52.380 --> 00:14:55.450 align:middle line:90% is still accented on the prefix. 00:14:55.450 --> 00:15:00.080 align:middle line:84% So when in doubt, accent the first syllable. 00:15:00.080 --> 00:15:01.970 align:middle line:84% And then you have a little summary 00:15:01.970 --> 00:15:11.780 align:middle line:84% of the pronunciation rules in 2.7, on the bottom of page 21. 00:15:11.780 --> 00:15:13.950 align:middle line:90% All right? 00:15:13.950 --> 00:15:15.240 align:middle line:90% Any questions there? 00:15:15.240 --> 00:15:19.530 align:middle line:90% 00:15:19.530 --> 00:15:22.095 align:middle line:90% OK, basic grammar, a review-- 00:15:22.095 --> 00:15:24.930 align:middle line:90% 00:15:24.930 --> 00:15:27.360 align:middle line:84% I'm not going to go through all of this. 00:15:27.360 --> 00:15:30.720 align:middle line:84% But I am going to emphasize the importance 00:15:30.720 --> 00:15:36.270 align:middle line:84% of understanding the difference between a clause and a phrase. 00:15:36.270 --> 00:15:42.810 align:middle line:84% So a phrase is a cohesive group of words that lack 00:15:42.810 --> 00:15:45.990 align:middle line:90% a subject and a verb, whereas-- 00:15:45.990 --> 00:15:49.740 align:middle line:84% or rather, a subject and a finite verb. 00:15:49.740 --> 00:15:52.680 align:middle line:84% A clause is a group of words that has 00:15:52.680 --> 00:15:55.800 align:middle line:90% a subject and a finite verb. 00:15:55.800 --> 00:16:00.630 align:middle line:84% And a finite verb just means like a conjugated verb 00:16:00.630 --> 00:16:06.330 align:middle line:84% that's inflected as distinct from an imperative, 00:16:06.330 --> 00:16:10.740 align:middle line:84% or an infinitive, or something like that. 00:16:10.740 --> 00:16:15.250 align:middle line:84% So in the example that I put up on the board here-- 00:16:15.250 --> 00:16:17.805 align:middle line:84% "I put it on the table that I bought in Greece"-- 00:16:17.805 --> 00:16:24.000 align:middle line:90% 00:16:24.000 --> 00:16:29.430 align:middle line:84% let's find some phrases and clauses. 00:16:29.430 --> 00:16:32.490 align:middle line:84% The reason it's important to be able to find phrases 00:16:32.490 --> 00:16:36.570 align:middle line:84% and clauses in any sentence is that every time 00:16:36.570 --> 00:16:38.640 align:middle line:84% you translate an Old English sentence, 00:16:38.640 --> 00:16:43.440 align:middle line:84% you are looking for the subject and the main verb. 00:16:43.440 --> 00:16:46.540 align:middle line:90% 00:16:46.540 --> 00:16:50.040 align:middle line:90% So what is the main-- 00:16:50.040 --> 00:16:54.720 align:middle line:84% what is the subject and what is the main verb of this sentence? 00:16:54.720 --> 00:16:58.280 align:middle line:90% 00:16:58.280 --> 00:16:59.780 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:16:59.780 --> 00:17:02.400 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: The subject is I. And the main verb is put. 00:17:02.400 --> 00:17:04.490 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: Yeah, exactly. 00:17:04.490 --> 00:17:06.589 align:middle line:90% So here's the subject. 00:17:06.589 --> 00:17:08.089 align:middle line:90% And here's the verb. 00:17:08.089 --> 00:17:12.990 align:middle line:84% And yet, we have other verbs, right? 00:17:12.990 --> 00:17:14.599 align:middle line:90% What is the other verb? 00:17:14.599 --> 00:17:15.500 align:middle line:90% AUDIENCE: Bought. 00:17:15.500 --> 00:17:16.819 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: Bought, exactly. 00:17:16.819 --> 00:17:21.050 align:middle line:84% So we know that there are how many clauses in this sentence? 00:17:21.050 --> 00:17:21.700 align:middle line:90% AUDIENCE: Two. 00:17:21.700 --> 00:17:22.783 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: Two, exactly. 00:17:22.783 --> 00:17:24.369 align:middle line:84% There will always be as many clauses 00:17:24.369 --> 00:17:27.069 align:middle line:90% as there are subjects and verbs. 00:17:27.069 --> 00:17:33.130 align:middle line:84% But this one is governing this one. 00:17:33.130 --> 00:17:34.390 align:middle line:90% How is it doing so? 00:17:34.390 --> 00:17:36.790 align:middle line:90% What are the phrases? 00:17:36.790 --> 00:17:38.500 align:middle line:84% What are the phrases that we can see? 00:17:38.500 --> 00:17:41.930 align:middle line:84% And what kinds of phrases are they? 00:17:41.930 --> 00:17:42.430 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:17:42.430 --> 00:17:43.300 align:middle line:90% Go ahead. 00:17:43.300 --> 00:17:44.980 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: So we could distinguish 00:17:44.980 --> 00:17:47.583 align:middle line:84% a prepositional phrase, on the table that I bought in Greece. 00:17:47.583 --> 00:17:48.250 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: OK. 00:17:48.250 --> 00:17:49.708 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: Then we could distinguish 00:17:49.708 --> 00:17:51.940 align:middle line:84% a noun phrase, the table that I bought in Greece. 00:17:51.940 --> 00:17:53.590 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: OK. 00:17:53.590 --> 00:17:55.900 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: Then you could, inside that, have the clause, 00:17:55.900 --> 00:17:57.160 align:middle line:90% that I bought in Greece. 00:17:57.160 --> 00:17:58.570 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: All right, good. 00:17:58.570 --> 00:18:01.112 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: And then you can have a final prepositional phrase, 00:18:01.112 --> 00:18:03.052 align:middle line:90% in Greece. 00:18:03.052 --> 00:18:04.010 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: Very good. 00:18:04.010 --> 00:18:05.350 align:middle line:90% So here, we have a noun clause. 00:18:05.350 --> 00:18:08.810 align:middle line:90% 00:18:08.810 --> 00:18:17.500 align:middle line:84% Here, we have a long prepositional phrase 00:18:17.500 --> 00:18:23.870 align:middle line:84% with an embedded clause, and then a further embedded phrase 00:18:23.870 --> 00:18:24.950 align:middle line:90% right there. 00:18:24.950 --> 00:18:26.240 align:middle line:90% Good. 00:18:26.240 --> 00:18:29.720 align:middle line:84% You don't need to worry too much about the different kinds. 00:18:29.720 --> 00:18:33.170 align:middle line:84% I'm never going to test you on is this a noun clause, 00:18:33.170 --> 00:18:34.910 align:middle line:84% is it an adverb clause, whatever. 00:18:34.910 --> 00:18:36.260 align:middle line:90% That I do not care about. 00:18:36.260 --> 00:18:38.030 align:middle line:84% What I do care about is your ability-- 00:18:38.030 --> 00:18:41.840 align:middle line:84% and you don't have to diagram sentences like these on exams. 00:18:41.840 --> 00:18:44.030 align:middle line:84% But you will need effectively to be 00:18:44.030 --> 00:18:46.340 align:middle line:84% able to diagram the sentences in order to be 00:18:46.340 --> 00:18:48.650 align:middle line:90% able to translate correctly. 00:18:48.650 --> 00:18:52.520 align:middle line:90% 00:18:52.520 --> 00:18:56.052 align:middle line:84% So I'll highlight the bottom of page 25. 00:18:56.052 --> 00:18:59.530 align:middle line:90% 00:18:59.530 --> 00:19:02.860 align:middle line:90% This is in 3.13. 00:19:02.860 --> 00:19:07.240 align:middle line:84% The finite clause must contain a finite verb. 00:19:07.240 --> 00:19:10.780 align:middle line:84% In general, finding and understanding the finite verb 00:19:10.780 --> 00:19:16.090 align:middle line:84% is the key to decoding complex clauses and sentences 00:19:16.090 --> 00:19:16.960 align:middle line:90% in Old English. 00:19:16.960 --> 00:19:19.540 align:middle line:84% And so it is essential that you get familiar 00:19:19.540 --> 00:19:21.010 align:middle line:90% with the finite verb paradigms. 00:19:21.010 --> 00:19:23.770 align:middle line:84% You will memorize the finite verb paradigms in due course. 00:19:23.770 --> 00:19:26.680 align:middle line:84% I say this as a preview of coming attractions. 00:19:26.680 --> 00:19:29.470 align:middle line:84% The reason that the verb is more important 00:19:29.470 --> 00:19:33.580 align:middle line:84% than the subject in Old English is that the verb is always 00:19:33.580 --> 00:19:40.060 align:middle line:84% there, whereas the subject can be implied, 00:19:40.060 --> 00:19:43.090 align:middle line:84% as it is in some modern languages as well, all right? 00:19:43.090 --> 00:19:47.040 align:middle line:90% 00:19:47.040 --> 00:19:47.800 align:middle line:90% Questions? 00:19:47.800 --> 00:19:52.720 align:middle line:90% 00:19:52.720 --> 00:19:56.410 align:middle line:84% I'll just say very quickly on page 26, when 00:19:56.410 --> 00:19:58.120 align:middle line:84% it says the past participle is also 00:19:58.120 --> 00:20:00.370 align:middle line:84% used to form a periphrastic passive, 00:20:00.370 --> 00:20:05.290 align:middle line:84% periphrastic just means using multiple words 00:20:05.290 --> 00:20:12.730 align:middle line:84% to carry the meaning, so using the words "most lovely," 00:20:12.730 --> 00:20:14.410 align:middle line:90% as opposed to "loveliest." 00:20:14.410 --> 00:20:18.970 align:middle line:84% That's an inherently periphrastic way of speaking. 00:20:18.970 --> 00:20:23.920 align:middle line:84% So "The king was slain," as opposed 00:20:23.920 --> 00:20:27.790 align:middle line:84% to just "The king died," et cetera. 00:20:27.790 --> 00:20:28.690 align:middle line:90% Let's see. 00:20:28.690 --> 00:20:34.540 align:middle line:90% 00:20:34.540 --> 00:20:39.670 align:middle line:84% Any questions leading up to 3.4 on page 30? 00:20:39.670 --> 00:20:44.570 align:middle line:90% 00:20:44.570 --> 00:20:47.960 align:middle line:84% All right, subjects, the elements 00:20:47.960 --> 00:20:50.510 align:middle line:84% of the sentence or the clause-- so the subject names 00:20:50.510 --> 00:20:52.610 align:middle line:84% what the sentence or clause is about. 00:20:52.610 --> 00:20:56.660 align:middle line:84% It may be a noun, a pronoun, a noun phrase, or a list, namely 00:20:56.660 --> 00:20:58.490 align:middle line:90% a compound subject. 00:20:58.490 --> 00:21:01.160 align:middle line:84% Top of page 31, pay close attention here. 00:21:01.160 --> 00:21:03.740 align:middle line:84% In Old English, as in modern English, 00:21:03.740 --> 00:21:05.900 align:middle line:84% subjects can be simple or complex. 00:21:05.900 --> 00:21:10.550 align:middle line:84% So what's different, though, is that, in Old English, 00:21:10.550 --> 00:21:14.450 align:middle line:90% a compound subject can be split. 00:21:14.450 --> 00:21:17.570 align:middle line:84% If I say, in modern English, "My friends and I 00:21:17.570 --> 00:21:22.880 align:middle line:84% are going to the store," I would never split up my friends 00:21:22.880 --> 00:21:24.920 align:middle line:90% and I in the sentence. 00:21:24.920 --> 00:21:26.840 align:middle line:84% That would be very, very strange. 00:21:26.840 --> 00:21:31.640 align:middle line:84% I would not say "My friends are going to the store and I." 00:21:31.640 --> 00:21:34.440 align:middle line:84% In Old English, they do that all the time. 00:21:34.440 --> 00:21:40.670 align:middle line:84% So for example, "My shield protects me and my sword." 00:21:40.670 --> 00:21:43.160 align:middle line:84% In modern English, that sentence is 00:21:43.160 --> 00:21:46.380 align:middle line:90% unambiguous, if a little weird. 00:21:46.380 --> 00:21:52.080 align:middle line:84% The me and my sword are the compound direct object 00:21:52.080 --> 00:21:54.610 align:middle line:90% of protects. 00:21:54.610 --> 00:21:58.540 align:middle line:84% In Old English, however, my shield protects me 00:21:58.540 --> 00:22:01.390 align:middle line:84% and my sword, the only way you're 00:22:01.390 --> 00:22:05.350 align:middle line:84% going to be able to determine whether my sword is, as it is 00:22:05.350 --> 00:22:08.140 align:middle line:84% in modern English an object of the verb protect, 00:22:08.140 --> 00:22:11.770 align:middle line:84% or part of the compound subject, i.e. 00:22:11.770 --> 00:22:14.680 align:middle line:84% my shield and my sword protect me-- 00:22:14.680 --> 00:22:16.990 align:middle line:84% the only way you're going to be able to distinguish 00:22:16.990 --> 00:22:22.210 align:middle line:84% is based on the case, the grammatical case of the word 00:22:22.210 --> 00:22:25.420 align:middle line:84% sword, which is one of the reasons 00:22:25.420 --> 00:22:31.000 align:middle line:84% that knowing the paradigms is so absolutely crucial to being 00:22:31.000 --> 00:22:33.180 align:middle line:90% able to decode these sentences. 00:22:33.180 --> 00:22:35.710 align:middle line:90% 00:22:35.710 --> 00:22:38.320 align:middle line:84% "Old English differs from modern English in that it often 00:22:38.320 --> 00:22:41.740 align:middle line:84% omits the subject when the context makes it obvious 00:22:41.740 --> 00:22:46.900 align:middle line:90% what it is," it says there. 00:22:46.900 --> 00:22:48.910 align:middle line:84% That's still at the top of page 31. 00:22:48.910 --> 00:22:51.280 align:middle line:84% I would actually say that Old English often 00:22:51.280 --> 00:22:54.310 align:middle line:84% omits the subject even when context does not 00:22:54.310 --> 00:23:00.800 align:middle line:84% make it particularly clear what it is, especially in poetry, 00:23:00.800 --> 00:23:05.920 align:middle line:84% which is one way that poets, Old English poets, 00:23:05.920 --> 00:23:09.370 align:middle line:84% could get nice literary mileage out 00:23:09.370 --> 00:23:12.250 align:middle line:84% of the inherent ambiguity of the language. 00:23:12.250 --> 00:23:14.650 align:middle line:84% But it also makes things harder for us, 00:23:14.650 --> 00:23:17.840 align:middle line:84% as non-native speakers and readers of the language. 00:23:17.840 --> 00:23:21.100 align:middle line:84% So bear these things in mind as you're moving forward. 00:23:21.100 --> 00:23:21.790 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:23:21.790 --> 00:23:22.810 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: In the case of Old English, 00:23:22.810 --> 00:23:24.730 align:middle line:84% out of curiosity, when you have "My shield protects 00:23:24.730 --> 00:23:26.740 align:middle line:84% me and my sword," presumably this would also 00:23:26.740 --> 00:23:29.590 align:middle line:84% be reflected in the verb, that you would expect the verb 00:23:29.590 --> 00:23:32.563 align:middle line:84% to inflect for plural if it was a compound subject? 00:23:32.563 --> 00:23:33.730 align:middle line:90% ARTHUR BAHR: Excellent, yes. 00:23:33.730 --> 00:23:35.810 align:middle line:84% AUDIENCE: I ask because Arabic does weird things 00:23:35.810 --> 00:23:38.090 align:middle line:84% with this where it might not inflect plurally, 00:23:38.090 --> 00:23:39.110 align:middle line:90% just for kicks. 00:23:39.110 --> 00:23:40.818 align:middle line:84% ARTHUR BAHR: No, you're absolutely right. 00:23:40.818 --> 00:23:42.560 align:middle line:90% It's a totally great point. 00:23:42.560 --> 00:23:43.500 align:middle line:90% You're right. 00:23:43.500 --> 00:23:46.820 align:middle line:84% We would be able to distinguish based on-- in this case, 00:23:46.820 --> 00:23:48.690 align:middle line:84% but yeah, but not necessarily in others. 00:23:48.690 --> 00:23:50.760 align:middle line:90% Excellent, excellent point. 00:23:50.760 --> 00:23:55.970 align:middle line:84% So because if it were, say, my companions 00:23:55.970 --> 00:23:58.130 align:middle line:90% protect me and my-- right? 00:23:58.130 --> 00:24:01.460 align:middle line:84% Then it would still be ambiguous, but very good, 00:24:01.460 --> 00:24:02.555 align:middle line:90% very good note. 00:24:02.555 --> 00:24:05.630 align:middle line:90% 00:24:05.630 --> 00:24:14.500 align:middle line:84% All right, next thing I want to highlight is the top of page 33 00:24:14.500 --> 00:24:17.300 align:middle line:90% because the direct object-- 00:24:17.300 --> 00:24:19.330 align:middle line:84% so the direct object is usually defined 00:24:19.330 --> 00:24:22.390 align:middle line:84% as the noun-- this is from the previous page-- usually defined 00:24:22.390 --> 00:24:27.380 align:middle line:84% as the noun pronoun or noun phrase that receives 00:24:27.380 --> 00:24:29.330 align:middle line:90% the action of the verb. 00:24:29.330 --> 00:24:34.750 align:middle line:84% They explain some subtleties of that. 00:24:34.750 --> 00:24:37.390 align:middle line:84% Top of page 33: "In modern English, 00:24:37.390 --> 00:24:40.420 align:middle line:84% the direct object usually follows the verb 00:24:40.420 --> 00:24:44.770 align:middle line:84% and never has a preposition in front of it. 00:24:44.770 --> 00:24:48.310 align:middle line:84% In Old English, the direct object may follow the verb, 00:24:48.310 --> 00:24:51.640 align:middle line:84% but it may also precede the verb, especially when 00:24:51.640 --> 00:24:54.280 align:middle line:90% the object is a pronoun." 00:24:54.280 --> 00:24:56.440 align:middle line:84% Generally, it's in the accusative case, 00:24:56.440 --> 00:24:59.090 align:middle line:90% but not always. 00:24:59.090 --> 00:25:01.000 align:middle line:84% And then "An 'indirect object' is a thing 00:25:01.000 --> 00:25:02.830 align:middle line:84% that has some indirect relationship 00:25:02.830 --> 00:25:04.270 align:middle line:90% to the action of the verb." 00:25:04.270 --> 00:25:07.270 align:middle line:84% Basically, the indirect object is anything 00:25:07.270 --> 00:25:09.970 align:middle line:90% that is not a direct object. 00:25:09.970 --> 00:25:12.040 align:middle line:84% And you really don't need to worry about-- 00:25:12.040 --> 00:25:15.040 align:middle line:84% again, I'm not going to say, what is the direct object? 00:25:15.040 --> 00:25:19.540 align:middle line:84% I'll just expect you to be able to translate, OK? 00:25:19.540 --> 00:25:23.110 align:middle line:84% But the variable word order that is 00:25:23.110 --> 00:25:25.660 align:middle line:84% alluded to at the top of page 33-- 00:25:25.660 --> 00:25:27.550 align:middle line:84% the direct object may follow the verb, 00:25:27.550 --> 00:25:29.980 align:middle line:84% it may also precede it-- this is something 00:25:29.980 --> 00:25:32.740 align:middle line:90% that we're going to hear a lot. 00:25:32.740 --> 00:25:37.740 align:middle line:84% Word order is extremely flexible in Old English compared 00:25:37.740 --> 00:25:39.240 align:middle line:90% to modern English. 00:25:39.240 --> 00:25:42.540 align:middle line:84% And the reason for that is that it's a case-based language. 00:25:42.540 --> 00:25:45.990 align:middle line:84% We learn a lot of the features, the functions 00:25:45.990 --> 00:25:49.350 align:middle line:84% of the word in a given sentence based on the case endings. 00:25:49.350 --> 00:25:52.890 align:middle line:84% Modern English has lost almost all its case endings. 00:25:52.890 --> 00:25:57.840 align:middle line:84% Who and whom is one increasingly archaic exception to that, 00:25:57.840 --> 00:26:03.870 align:middle line:84% where who is the subject, whom is the object. 00:26:03.870 --> 00:26:08.010 align:middle line:84% And he/him, she/her, we do have cases. 00:26:08.010 --> 00:26:12.420 align:middle line:84% But increasingly, they are obsolete and not-- 00:26:12.420 --> 00:26:15.660 align:middle line:84% they're only in pronouns, not in nouns. 00:26:15.660 --> 00:26:18.210 align:middle line:84% But because Old English communicates so much more 00:26:18.210 --> 00:26:21.120 align:middle line:84% information through the endings of the words themselves, 00:26:21.120 --> 00:26:24.480 align:middle line:84% you can have word order that is what 00:26:24.480 --> 00:26:26.280 align:middle line:90% we would think of as unnatural. 00:26:26.280 --> 00:26:29.100 align:middle line:84% And you have to rearrange the pieces 00:26:29.100 --> 00:26:31.830 align:middle line:84% of the sentence, the pieces of the puzzle, as it were, 00:26:31.830 --> 00:26:34.680 align:middle line:90% in order to decode it. 00:26:34.680 --> 00:26:36.780 align:middle line:84% We'll come back to this again and again. 00:26:36.780 --> 00:26:39.650 align:middle line:84% But it's worth telling yourself from the beginning 00:26:39.650 --> 00:26:43.580 align:middle line:90% that this is true, all right? 00:26:43.580 --> 00:26:51.860 align:middle line:84% Any questions about chapter 3 and this very basic, very quick 00:26:51.860 --> 00:26:52.760 align:middle line:90% grammar review? 00:26:52.760 --> 00:26:59.960 align:middle line:90% 00:26:59.960 --> 00:27:03.690 align:middle line:84% All right, let's move on to chapter 4 and cases. 00:27:03.690 --> 00:27:09.550 align:middle line:84% So page 34, case is the inflection of nouns, 00:27:09.550 --> 00:27:12.060 align:middle line:84% pronouns, and adjectives to signal their function 00:27:12.060 --> 00:27:13.740 align:middle line:90% in sentences and clauses. 00:27:13.740 --> 00:27:17.370 align:middle line:84% This is exactly what we were talking about just before. 00:27:17.370 --> 00:27:20.520 align:middle line:84% Modern English case has almost disappeared, 00:27:20.520 --> 00:27:23.570 align:middle line:90% again except in pronouns. 00:27:23.570 --> 00:27:27.350 align:middle line:90% 00:27:27.350 --> 00:27:31.100 align:middle line:84% The cases in Old English are nominative, accusative, 00:27:31.100 --> 00:27:35.630 align:middle line:84% genitive, dative, and the increasingly archaic, 00:27:35.630 --> 00:27:39.560 align:middle line:84% as we move-- it's actually even a little archaic even 00:27:39.560 --> 00:27:42.290 align:middle line:84% from the beginning of our written record, 00:27:42.290 --> 00:27:44.030 align:middle line:90% the instrumental. 00:27:44.030 --> 00:27:50.270 align:middle line:84% So the nominative case is quite easy because, as Baker says, 00:27:50.270 --> 00:27:54.350 align:middle line:84% it has few functions and there are few complications. 00:27:54.350 --> 00:27:57.060 align:middle line:90% Basically, it's the subject. 00:27:57.060 --> 00:27:58.740 align:middle line:90% It's also the complement. 00:27:58.740 --> 00:28:01.430 align:middle line:84% So the complement is the word on the other side 00:28:01.430 --> 00:28:05.150 align:middle line:84% of a linking verb, such as to be. 00:28:05.150 --> 00:28:11.090 align:middle line:84% So Sēo sunne is swīðe brād, "The sun is very broad." 00:28:11.090 --> 00:28:14.990 align:middle line:84% Brād there is in the nominative because it 00:28:14.990 --> 00:28:19.040 align:middle line:90% is the complement of sunne. 00:28:19.040 --> 00:28:20.930 align:middle line:84% And then since Old English does not 00:28:20.930 --> 00:28:25.010 align:middle line:84% have a vocative case like some languages, 00:28:25.010 --> 00:28:29.580 align:middle line:84% the nominative is used for direct address as well. 00:28:29.580 --> 00:28:34.170 align:middle line:84% But those are really the only things that it gets used for. 00:28:34.170 --> 00:28:38.550 align:middle line:84% The accusative case is also pretty straightforward 00:28:38.550 --> 00:28:41.880 align:middle line:84% because direct objects of transitive verbs 00:28:41.880 --> 00:28:43.990 align:middle line:84% are typically in the accusative case. 00:28:43.990 --> 00:28:49.650 align:middle line:84% So thus, in the sentence at the top of page 37, 00:28:49.650 --> 00:28:53.970 align:middle line:84% His āgen swustor bebyrġde his līċ, 00:28:53.970 --> 00:28:56.490 align:middle line:84% "His own sister buried his corpse," 00:28:56.490 --> 00:29:00.420 align:middle line:90% līċ is in the accusative. 00:29:00.420 --> 00:29:05.160 align:middle line:84% Some prepositions always take the accusative, no matter what. 00:29:05.160 --> 00:29:11.190 align:middle line:84% And sometimes, you have an accusative used adverbially 00:29:11.190 --> 00:29:14.370 align:middle line:90% in expressions of time. 00:29:14.370 --> 00:29:18.760 align:middle line:84% But you don't need to worry too much about that. 00:29:18.760 --> 00:29:24.460 align:middle line:84% All right, genitive, the genitive case modifies 00:29:24.460 --> 00:29:26.830 align:middle line:84% or limits a word-- this is page 37-- 00:29:26.830 --> 00:29:29.110 align:middle line:84% by associating it with something. 00:29:29.110 --> 00:29:32.350 align:middle line:84% So for example, in the phrase þæs cyninges 00:29:32.350 --> 00:29:35.440 align:middle line:84% sweord, "the king's sword," the sense of sword 00:29:35.440 --> 00:29:38.560 align:middle line:84% is modified by our saying that it belongs to the king. 00:29:38.560 --> 00:29:40.570 align:middle line:84% We're not speaking of any just sword-- 00:29:40.570 --> 00:29:44.200 align:middle line:90% or of just any sword. 00:29:44.200 --> 00:29:47.050 align:middle line:84% Most genitives will fall into one of three categories. 00:29:47.050 --> 00:29:48.700 align:middle line:84% The possessive genitive is the one 00:29:48.700 --> 00:29:51.550 align:middle line:90% that we're most familiar with-- 00:29:51.550 --> 00:29:57.400 align:middle line:84% "the king's sword," "Saint Edmund's Feast Day." 00:29:57.400 --> 00:30:04.160 align:middle line:84% But the partitive genitive is an extremely important, 00:30:04.160 --> 00:30:09.770 align:middle line:84% because extremely common, use of the genitive in Old English. 00:30:09.770 --> 00:30:15.770 align:middle line:84% So for example, ǣlċ þāra manna "each of the men," 00:30:15.770 --> 00:30:22.010 align:middle line:84% ælre cyninge betst, "best of all kings." 00:30:22.010 --> 00:30:24.530 align:middle line:84% As the translations with "of" suggest, 00:30:24.530 --> 00:30:26.810 align:middle line:84% we have a roughly similar construction 00:30:26.810 --> 00:30:28.970 align:middle line:90% made with the preposition "of." 00:30:28.970 --> 00:30:31.610 align:middle line:84% But Old English doesn't need the preposition 00:30:31.610 --> 00:30:37.490 align:middle line:84% because it has the genitive case to embed that "of" directly 00:30:37.490 --> 00:30:39.720 align:middle line:90% into the word itself. 00:30:39.720 --> 00:30:44.400 align:middle line:84% So make sure that you're on the lookout for that. 00:30:44.400 --> 00:30:47.420 align:middle line:84% And notice already, just in those two examples, how, 00:30:47.420 --> 00:30:50.630 align:middle line:84% in one case, the partitive genitive comes after 00:30:50.630 --> 00:30:55.040 align:middle line:84% the adjective-- ǣlċ þāra manna-- and in the other one-- 00:30:55.040 --> 00:30:58.940 align:middle line:84% ælre cyninge betst-- the partitive genitive 00:30:58.940 --> 00:30:59.970 align:middle line:90% comes before. 00:30:59.970 --> 00:31:01.920 align:middle line:90% Again, typical. 00:31:01.920 --> 00:31:05.280 align:middle line:84% So one piece of advice I like to give 00:31:05.280 --> 00:31:10.170 align:middle line:84% is we have very rigid word order in modern English. 00:31:10.170 --> 00:31:15.460 align:middle line:84% In order to read Old English well, you have to almost-- 00:31:15.460 --> 00:31:18.190 align:middle line:84% I think of it as like relaxing our sense 00:31:18.190 --> 00:31:20.830 align:middle line:90% of what word order can do. 00:31:20.830 --> 00:31:25.510 align:middle line:84% And you have to develop an almost like flexibility of mind 00:31:25.510 --> 00:31:28.480 align:middle line:84% in saying, OK, well, what if this word goes with that word, 00:31:28.480 --> 00:31:32.170 align:middle line:84% even though they're separated by an entire line of poetry 00:31:32.170 --> 00:31:34.570 align:middle line:90% and so on and so forth. 00:31:34.570 --> 00:31:40.110 align:middle line:84% Finally, the third element of the-- 00:31:40.110 --> 00:31:44.490 align:middle line:84% or third aspect of the genitive is the descriptive. 00:31:44.490 --> 00:31:48.390 align:middle line:84% So þæt lamb sceal bēon hwītes hīwes, 00:31:48.390 --> 00:31:52.290 align:middle line:84% "The lamb must be of a white color." 00:31:52.290 --> 00:31:57.540 align:middle line:84% And I mean, they say it's more idiomatic to say 00:31:57.540 --> 00:31:59.190 align:middle line:90% is "white in color." 00:31:59.190 --> 00:32:00.210 align:middle line:90% Sure, I guess. 00:32:00.210 --> 00:32:02.760 align:middle line:90% But I don't know. 00:32:02.760 --> 00:32:04.680 align:middle line:84% That still sounds basically right to me, 00:32:04.680 --> 00:32:07.192 align:middle line:90% "the lamb is of a white color." 00:32:07.192 --> 00:32:08.400 align:middle line:90% Maybe that is a little weird. 00:32:08.400 --> 00:32:11.770 align:middle line:84% In any event, people in Old English did it all the time. 00:32:11.770 --> 00:32:13.050 align:middle line:90% So those are the three. 00:32:13.050 --> 00:32:15.900 align:middle line:84% And then the last little bit, the last little point 00:32:15.900 --> 00:32:17.280 align:middle line:90% at the top of page 38-- 00:32:17.280 --> 00:32:20.890 align:middle line:84% a few prepositions take the genitive case. 00:32:20.890 --> 00:32:22.530 align:middle line:90% It's rare, but it can happen. 00:32:22.530 --> 00:32:26.160 align:middle line:84% And a few verbs have genitive direct objects. 00:32:26.160 --> 00:32:28.560 align:middle line:84% And that's just something you'll have to learn 00:32:28.560 --> 00:32:31.260 align:middle line:90% as you learn the verbs. 00:32:31.260 --> 00:32:33.480 align:middle line:90% Most verbs take the accusative. 00:32:33.480 --> 00:32:35.590 align:middle line:90% Very few take the genitive. 00:32:35.590 --> 00:32:39.490 align:middle line:84% Quite a few actually, as we'll see, take the dative. 00:32:39.490 --> 00:32:43.240 align:middle line:84% So any questions on nominative, genitive-- 00:32:43.240 --> 00:32:45.490 align:middle line:84% nominative, accusative, or genitive 00:32:45.490 --> 00:32:49.230 align:middle line:84% before we go on to dative, which is the sort of catch-all? 00:32:49.230 --> 00:32:54.590 align:middle line:90% 00:32:54.590 --> 00:33:02.490 align:middle line:90% All right, so 4.2.4, page 38-- 00:33:02.490 --> 00:33:04.260 align:middle line:84% in all of the Germanic languages, 00:33:04.260 --> 00:33:07.980 align:middle line:84% the dative case is an amalgam of several older cases 00:33:07.980 --> 00:33:11.820 align:middle line:84% that have fallen together-- so dative, locative, ablative, 00:33:11.820 --> 00:33:14.490 align:middle line:90% and instrumental. 00:33:14.490 --> 00:33:19.500 align:middle line:84% Pre-written versions of Germanic languages we think 00:33:19.500 --> 00:33:21.070 align:middle line:90% had all of these cases. 00:33:21.070 --> 00:33:26.580 align:middle line:84% But for the most part, they've all collapsed into the dative 00:33:26.580 --> 00:33:28.590 align:middle line:90% by the time that we're working. 00:33:28.590 --> 00:33:32.340 align:middle line:84% This is good inasmuch as it means you have fewer paradigms 00:33:32.340 --> 00:33:33.120 align:middle line:90% to memorize. 00:33:33.120 --> 00:33:37.050 align:middle line:84% It's bad in the sense that the dative can do almost anything, 00:33:37.050 --> 00:33:38.790 align:middle line:90% we will discover, all right? 00:33:38.790 --> 00:33:39.570 align:middle line:90% Or it's not bad. 00:33:39.570 --> 00:33:41.430 align:middle line:90% It's confusing, potentially. 00:33:41.430 --> 00:33:47.400 align:middle line:84% So I'm going to go through some of the most important uses 00:33:47.400 --> 00:33:51.010 align:middle line:84% of the dative case, and then we'll take questions. 00:33:51.010 --> 00:33:58.170 align:middle line:84% So the dative of interest signifies 00:33:58.170 --> 00:34:01.350 align:middle line:84% that one is, in some way, interested 00:34:01.350 --> 00:34:03.070 align:middle line:90% in the outcome of an action. 00:34:03.070 --> 00:34:05.740 align:middle line:84% This category includes the indirect object. 00:34:05.740 --> 00:34:10.420 align:middle line:84% So Ġif him his sweord, "Give him his sword." 00:34:10.420 --> 00:34:13.210 align:middle line:84% But the dative of interest also covers situations 00:34:13.210 --> 00:34:14.804 align:middle line:84% in which something has been taken away 00:34:14.804 --> 00:34:16.179 align:middle line:84% and is therefore sometimes called 00:34:16.179 --> 00:34:18.639 align:middle line:90% the dative of disinterest. 00:34:18.639 --> 00:34:24.370 align:middle line:84% Benam hē him his bisceopscīre, "He took his bishopric away 00:34:24.370 --> 00:34:25.150 align:middle line:90% from him." 00:34:25.150 --> 00:34:28.800 align:middle line:90% 00:34:28.800 --> 00:34:32.610 align:middle line:84% One other aspect, one other function of the dative case 00:34:32.610 --> 00:34:34.080 align:middle line:84% that actually-- oh yeah, there it 00:34:34.080 --> 00:34:36.510 align:middle line:90% is at the bottom of the page. 00:34:36.510 --> 00:34:39.239 align:middle line:84% I'll get back to that in one sec. 00:34:39.239 --> 00:34:42.570 align:middle line:84% The direct object-- so some verbs have their direct objects 00:34:42.570 --> 00:34:43.960 align:middle line:90% in the dative case. 00:34:43.960 --> 00:34:47.100 align:middle line:84% I already mentioned that briefly before. 00:34:47.100 --> 00:34:49.845 align:middle line:90% It's not that uncommon actually. 00:34:49.845 --> 00:34:53.400 align:middle line:90% 00:34:53.400 --> 00:34:56.070 align:middle line:84% Yeah, and you'll just have to look up the word in order 00:34:56.070 --> 00:34:57.120 align:middle line:90% to know. 00:34:57.120 --> 00:35:03.780 align:middle line:84% Fortunately, our glossaries indicate which case the verb 00:35:03.780 --> 00:35:07.480 align:middle line:90% will take as a direct object. 00:35:07.480 --> 00:35:10.470 align:middle line:84% So for example, hīeran, which is the example 00:35:10.470 --> 00:35:12.975 align:middle line:90% that they give right there-- 00:35:12.975 --> 00:35:18.500 align:middle line:90% 00:35:18.500 --> 00:35:20.810 align:middle line:84% oh, I guess they gloss it under-- 00:35:20.810 --> 00:35:23.840 align:middle line:84% it takes a little while to learn to get 00:35:23.840 --> 00:35:26.900 align:middle line:84% the hang of using Old English glossaries because there's 00:35:26.900 --> 00:35:29.180 align:middle line:90% a lot of-- 00:35:29.180 --> 00:35:31.740 align:middle line:84% words can be spelled a lot of different ways. 00:35:31.740 --> 00:35:34.550 align:middle line:84% There's no such thing as standardized spelling 00:35:34.550 --> 00:35:35.580 align:middle line:90% quite yet. 00:35:35.580 --> 00:35:40.550 align:middle line:84% But if you look up hyran on page 333 of the glossary-- 00:35:40.550 --> 00:35:44.450 align:middle line:84% "to hear," "to listen to," and then "to obey." 00:35:44.450 --> 00:35:48.170 align:middle line:84% And then it includes, in parentheses, "with the dative." 00:35:48.170 --> 00:35:51.490 align:middle line:90% So the glossary will guide you. 00:35:51.490 --> 00:35:55.000 align:middle line:90%