WEBVTT 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:01.952 align:middle line:90% [SQUEAKING] 00:00:01.952 --> 00:00:03.416 align:middle line:90% [RUSTLING] 00:00:03.416 --> 00:00:06.344 align:middle line:90% [CLICKING] 00:00:06.344 --> 00:00:11.780 align:middle line:90% 00:00:11.780 --> 00:00:13.100 align:middle line:90% [SIDE CONVERSATIONS] 00:00:13.100 --> 00:00:16.260 align:middle line:90% 00:00:16.260 --> 00:00:19.550 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: OK, so let's start back up. 00:00:19.550 --> 00:00:20.630 align:middle line:90% Today, let's see. 00:00:20.630 --> 00:00:24.240 align:middle line:84% We are transitioning from morphology into phonetics. 00:00:24.240 --> 00:00:26.060 align:middle line:84% So I hope you enjoyed morphology. 00:00:26.060 --> 00:00:28.490 align:middle line:84% It's not as if you won't ever do any morphology again. 00:00:28.490 --> 00:00:33.170 align:middle line:84% But that's it for lessons on morphology-- lectures, I guess. 00:00:33.170 --> 00:00:36.140 align:middle line:84% Today is phonetics, which means that today we begin making 00:00:36.140 --> 00:00:37.800 align:middle line:90% funny sounds at each other. 00:00:37.800 --> 00:00:42.060 align:middle line:84% So everybody limber up your vocal tracts. 00:00:42.060 --> 00:00:42.560 align:middle line:90% Let's see. 00:00:42.560 --> 00:00:44.330 align:middle line:84% I'm trying to remember if there's anything 00:00:44.330 --> 00:00:46.100 align:middle line:90% that I ought to announce. 00:00:46.100 --> 00:00:47.990 align:middle line:84% You remember, maybe, that problem 00:00:47.990 --> 00:00:51.080 align:middle line:84% set 1, which confusingly is your second problem set, 00:00:51.080 --> 00:00:53.030 align:middle line:90% is due on Thursday. 00:00:53.030 --> 00:00:54.620 align:middle line:84% Normally, it would be due on Tuesday. 00:00:54.620 --> 00:00:58.430 align:middle line:84% But because I am technologically challenged, 00:00:58.430 --> 00:01:00.975 align:middle line:90% it's due on Thursday. 00:01:00.975 --> 00:01:02.850 align:middle line:84% Speaking of being technologically challenged, 00:01:02.850 --> 00:01:04.760 align:middle line:84% I just figured out how to get the projector 00:01:04.760 --> 00:01:06.740 align:middle line:84% to project over there instead of in the middle 00:01:06.740 --> 00:01:08.720 align:middle line:84% so that I won't have to write everything twice running 00:01:08.720 --> 00:01:09.870 align:middle line:90% back and forth across the room. 00:01:09.870 --> 00:01:10.160 align:middle line:90% [APPLAUSE] 00:01:10.160 --> 00:01:10.640 align:middle line:90% Thank you. 00:01:10.640 --> 00:01:11.160 align:middle line:90% Thank you. 00:01:11.160 --> 00:01:11.660 align:middle line:90% Thank you. 00:01:11.660 --> 00:01:14.690 align:middle line:90% 00:01:14.690 --> 00:01:16.760 align:middle line:84% I'm going to mention this when I go up for-- 00:01:16.760 --> 00:01:19.160 align:middle line:84% my chair is trying to decide whether to give me a raise. 00:01:19.160 --> 00:01:21.260 align:middle line:84% I'll be like, big academic achievement of the year 00:01:21.260 --> 00:01:24.030 align:middle line:90% was figuring out the technique. 00:01:24.030 --> 00:01:25.753 align:middle line:84% So if anybody misses the old days, 00:01:25.753 --> 00:01:27.920 align:middle line:84% like you were amused watching me run back and forth, 00:01:27.920 --> 00:01:32.030 align:middle line:84% or this turns out to be too small or something like that, 00:01:32.030 --> 00:01:32.540 align:middle line:90% let me know. 00:01:32.540 --> 00:01:36.580 align:middle line:84% And we'll go back to the old days. 00:01:36.580 --> 00:01:37.790 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:01:37.790 --> 00:01:43.370 align:middle line:84% So when we speak, if we're speaking an oral language, 00:01:43.370 --> 00:01:47.390 align:middle line:84% if we're not signing, what we are typically doing 00:01:47.390 --> 00:01:50.390 align:middle line:84% is producing a flow of air, which typically comes out 00:01:50.390 --> 00:01:52.040 align:middle line:84% of your lungs, but not necessarily. 00:01:52.040 --> 00:01:53.900 align:middle line:90% We'll talk about that. 00:01:53.900 --> 00:01:57.170 align:middle line:84% And it gets obstructed in various ways 00:01:57.170 --> 00:01:58.770 align:middle line:90% in the vocal tract. 00:01:58.770 --> 00:02:01.160 align:middle line:84% And so one standard way of talking 00:02:01.160 --> 00:02:02.990 align:middle line:84% about different kinds of speech sounds 00:02:02.990 --> 00:02:08.150 align:middle line:84% is to talk about where in the vocal tract the flow of air 00:02:08.150 --> 00:02:09.860 align:middle line:90% can get obstructed and how. 00:02:09.860 --> 00:02:12.510 align:middle line:84% And that's what we're going to do. 00:02:12.510 --> 00:02:14.000 align:middle line:84% So first, we'll talk about where. 00:02:14.000 --> 00:02:17.030 align:middle line:84% So one way of categorizing the various things 00:02:17.030 --> 00:02:20.870 align:middle line:84% that your vocal tract does to the airflow 00:02:20.870 --> 00:02:22.880 align:middle line:84% is by what's called place of articulation. 00:02:22.880 --> 00:02:25.880 align:middle line:84% That is, where in your vocal tract is the flow of air 00:02:25.880 --> 00:02:28.200 align:middle line:90% getting obstructed? 00:02:28.200 --> 00:02:32.490 align:middle line:84% So for example, there are what are called bilabial sounds. 00:02:32.490 --> 00:02:35.360 align:middle line:84% These are sounds which are made with both lips. 00:02:35.360 --> 00:02:37.040 align:middle line:84% This picture over here on the right 00:02:37.040 --> 00:02:38.720 align:middle line:84% is what's called the sagittal section. 00:02:38.720 --> 00:02:40.790 align:middle line:84% That is, it's a picture of someone's head cut 00:02:40.790 --> 00:02:46.190 align:middle line:84% in half so that you can see the stuff that's inside. 00:02:46.190 --> 00:02:48.680 align:middle line:84% And those arrows are meant to get 00:02:48.680 --> 00:02:52.040 align:middle line:84% you to imagine that this person is making a sound by putting 00:02:52.040 --> 00:02:53.280 align:middle line:90% their two lips together. 00:02:53.280 --> 00:02:55.070 align:middle line:84% So that's what you do for the sounds that 00:02:55.070 --> 00:02:58.310 align:middle line:84% are at the beginnings of words like "paint," and "bath," 00:02:58.310 --> 00:03:02.220 align:middle line:84% and "mouth," and well, "wipe," where your lips don't touch, 00:03:02.220 --> 00:03:03.440 align:middle line:90% but they both move. 00:03:03.440 --> 00:03:04.370 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:03:04.370 --> 00:03:06.800 align:middle line:84% Everybody feel free to confirm to yourselves 00:03:06.800 --> 00:03:10.130 align:middle line:84% in the privacy of your own mask that that is what you're doing 00:03:10.130 --> 00:03:11.690 align:middle line:90% when you make these sounds. 00:03:11.690 --> 00:03:14.900 align:middle line:90% Now next to the sounds-- 00:03:14.900 --> 00:03:17.480 align:middle line:84% so I have these words-- "paint," "bath," "map," and "wipe." 00:03:17.480 --> 00:03:21.617 align:middle line:84% And then next to them, I have these symbols in brackets. 00:03:21.617 --> 00:03:24.200 align:middle line:84% And they may not look at it, but these are extremely technical 00:03:24.200 --> 00:03:24.720 align:middle line:90% symbols. 00:03:24.720 --> 00:03:26.840 align:middle line:84% These are symbols of the International Phonetic 00:03:26.840 --> 00:03:27.830 align:middle line:90% Alphabet. 00:03:27.830 --> 00:03:31.580 align:middle line:84% So linguists have a system for writing sounds down so 00:03:31.580 --> 00:03:33.320 align:middle line:84% that we'll all know what kind of sound 00:03:33.320 --> 00:03:36.735 align:middle line:84% we're talking about when we're talking about sounds. 00:03:36.735 --> 00:03:37.235 align:middle line:90% And-- 00:03:37.235 --> 00:03:38.030 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: [SNEEZES] 00:03:38.030 --> 00:03:38.750 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Bless you. 00:03:38.750 --> 00:03:41.450 align:middle line:84% A lot of the symbols of the International Phonetic Alphabet 00:03:41.450 --> 00:03:43.340 align:middle line:84% resemble letters of the English alphabet. 00:03:43.340 --> 00:03:45.080 align:middle line:84% So we have started here with symbols 00:03:45.080 --> 00:03:46.530 align:middle line:90% that should all look familiar. 00:03:46.530 --> 00:03:50.090 align:middle line:84% So the symbol for the sound at the beginning of "paint" 00:03:50.090 --> 00:03:51.420 align:middle line:90% is the letter p. 00:03:51.420 --> 00:03:51.920 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:03:51.920 --> 00:03:54.770 align:middle line:84% And so that's a symbol of the International Phonetic 00:03:54.770 --> 00:03:55.310 align:middle line:90% Alphabet. 00:03:55.310 --> 00:03:57.440 align:middle line:84% As we go along, we will be seeing weirder and weirder 00:03:57.440 --> 00:03:59.482 align:middle line:84% symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet. 00:03:59.482 --> 00:04:00.960 align:middle line:84% So please enjoy it while it's easy. 00:04:00.960 --> 00:04:01.460 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:04:01.460 --> 00:04:02.780 align:middle line:90% So far, so good. 00:04:02.780 --> 00:04:03.280 align:middle line:90% Yep. 00:04:03.280 --> 00:04:07.260 align:middle line:90% 00:04:07.260 --> 00:04:10.110 align:middle line:84% There are also what are called labiodental sounds. 00:04:10.110 --> 00:04:14.160 align:middle line:84% Labiodental sounds involve your top teeth and your lower lip. 00:04:14.160 --> 00:04:15.660 align:middle line:84% If you think about what you're doing 00:04:15.660 --> 00:04:20.160 align:middle line:84% at the beginning of a sound like "face" or "vase," 00:04:20.160 --> 00:04:22.410 align:middle line:84% what you're doing, at least if you're me, 00:04:22.410 --> 00:04:25.170 align:middle line:84% is bringing your lower lip pretty close 00:04:25.170 --> 00:04:28.080 align:middle line:84% to your upper teeth and obstructing the flow of air 00:04:28.080 --> 00:04:30.120 align:middle line:84% there so that there's some turbulence. 00:04:30.120 --> 00:04:31.410 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:04:31.410 --> 00:04:34.590 align:middle line:84% There are, I believe, no languages 00:04:34.590 --> 00:04:37.320 align:middle line:84% in which labiodentals are made with your bottom teeth 00:04:37.320 --> 00:04:38.490 align:middle line:90% and your upper lip. 00:04:38.490 --> 00:04:41.920 align:middle line:84% It's a little hard to do-- "face," "face." 00:04:41.920 --> 00:04:44.478 align:middle line:84% We'll talk about other kinds of places of articulation 00:04:44.478 --> 00:04:46.020 align:middle line:84% that English doesn't use, but I think 00:04:46.020 --> 00:04:48.380 align:middle line:90% that one just doesn't exist. 00:04:48.380 --> 00:04:50.933 align:middle line:84% And again, two symbols of the IPA, which again, 00:04:50.933 --> 00:04:52.850 align:middle line:84% are not going to be too hard for you to learn. 00:04:52.850 --> 00:04:55.430 align:middle line:84% Yeah, so the symbol for the sound of the beginning 00:04:55.430 --> 00:04:56.375 align:middle line:90% of "face" is an f. 00:04:56.375 --> 00:04:58.667 align:middle line:84% And the symbol for the sound of the beginning of "vase" 00:04:58.667 --> 00:05:02.240 align:middle line:84% is a v. Here we get our first two IPA 00:05:02.240 --> 00:05:05.870 align:middle line:84% symbols that are not letters of the English alphabet. 00:05:05.870 --> 00:05:08.330 align:middle line:90% These are interdental sounds. 00:05:08.330 --> 00:05:10.370 align:middle line:84% Interdental sounds are linguistically not 00:05:10.370 --> 00:05:12.140 align:middle line:90% hugely common. 00:05:12.140 --> 00:05:13.940 align:middle line:90% We have them in English. 00:05:13.940 --> 00:05:16.880 align:middle line:84% There are various dialects of Arabic that have them. 00:05:16.880 --> 00:05:19.280 align:middle line:84% Some of the Berber languages have them. 00:05:19.280 --> 00:05:23.127 align:middle line:90% But they're not all that common. 00:05:23.127 --> 00:05:24.710 align:middle line:84% These are the sounds of the beginnings 00:05:24.710 --> 00:05:27.860 align:middle line:84% of words like "thistle" and "this," 00:05:27.860 --> 00:05:30.710 align:middle line:84% where you're sticking your tongue between your front teeth 00:05:30.710 --> 00:05:33.320 align:middle line:90% and making air flow out. 00:05:33.320 --> 00:05:33.820 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:05:33.820 --> 00:05:35.237 align:middle line:84% "Th" [pronounced as in "thistle"], 00:05:35.237 --> 00:05:36.770 align:middle line:90% "th" [pronounced as in "this"]. 00:05:36.770 --> 00:05:39.980 align:middle line:84% English doesn't spell these differently, 00:05:39.980 --> 00:05:41.450 align:middle line:90% at least not reliably, right? 00:05:41.450 --> 00:05:43.273 align:middle line:84% So we spell both of these with a "th." 00:05:43.273 --> 00:05:45.440 align:middle line:84% That's one of the reasons the International Phonetic 00:05:45.440 --> 00:05:46.767 align:middle line:90% Alphabet is there. 00:05:46.767 --> 00:05:48.350 align:middle line:84% It's so that we can unambiguously talk 00:05:48.350 --> 00:05:49.700 align:middle line:90% about what we're talking about. 00:05:49.700 --> 00:05:52.370 align:middle line:84% So the sound of the beginning of "thistle" and the sound 00:05:52.370 --> 00:05:54.020 align:middle line:90% of the beginning of "this"-- 00:05:54.020 --> 00:05:55.220 align:middle line:90% they're not the same sound. 00:05:55.220 --> 00:05:57.630 align:middle line:84% We'll talk about the difference between them shortly. 00:05:57.630 --> 00:05:59.810 align:middle line:84% But at this point, maybe it's just clear they're not 00:05:59.810 --> 00:06:00.480 align:middle line:90% the same sound. 00:06:00.480 --> 00:06:02.570 align:middle line:84% So there are two different IPA symbols for them. 00:06:02.570 --> 00:06:04.490 align:middle line:84% The Greek letter theta is used for the sound 00:06:04.490 --> 00:06:06.050 align:middle line:90% at the beginning of "thistle." 00:06:06.050 --> 00:06:09.162 align:middle line:84% And that second letter is an old English letter. 00:06:09.162 --> 00:06:10.370 align:middle line:90% It's still used in Icelandic. 00:06:10.370 --> 00:06:12.890 align:middle line:84% It's sometimes called "edh," and it 00:06:12.890 --> 00:06:15.410 align:middle line:84% stands for the sound at the beginning of "this." 00:06:15.410 --> 00:06:17.270 align:middle line:90% Yep. 00:06:17.270 --> 00:06:17.770 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:06:17.770 --> 00:06:20.940 align:middle line:90% 00:06:20.940 --> 00:06:25.000 align:middle line:84% Then there are what are called alveolar sounds. 00:06:25.000 --> 00:06:27.770 align:middle line:90% If you put your tongue-- 00:06:27.770 --> 00:06:29.020 align:middle line:90% sorry, let me just talk first. 00:06:29.020 --> 00:06:32.890 align:middle line:84% If you put your tongue at the top of your mouth and drag 00:06:32.890 --> 00:06:35.410 align:middle line:84% it-- so put it first against your front teeth 00:06:35.410 --> 00:06:39.670 align:middle line:84% and then drag it backwards along the top of your mouth. 00:06:39.670 --> 00:06:44.200 align:middle line:84% If you're like me, you've got your teeth. 00:06:44.200 --> 00:06:47.170 align:middle line:84% And then there's this flat-ish space. 00:06:47.170 --> 00:06:49.250 align:middle line:90% And then it goes up, yeah? 00:06:49.250 --> 00:06:52.722 align:middle line:84% So from your teeth, you go back to this little plateau. 00:06:52.722 --> 00:06:55.180 align:middle line:84% There is this little plateau there right behind your teeth, 00:06:55.180 --> 00:06:56.050 align:middle line:90% this gum ridge. 00:06:56.050 --> 00:06:59.530 align:middle line:84% And then your mouth begins to go up higher, yeah? 00:06:59.530 --> 00:07:02.860 align:middle line:84% That ridge is called the alveolar ridge. 00:07:02.860 --> 00:07:05.510 align:middle line:84% And if you put your tongue there, 00:07:05.510 --> 00:07:07.510 align:middle line:84% then you are all set to make sounds 00:07:07.510 --> 00:07:12.680 align:middle line:84% like the sound at the beginning of the word "teeth," or "duck," 00:07:12.680 --> 00:07:14.180 align:middle line:90% or "nail." 00:07:14.180 --> 00:07:17.188 align:middle line:84% And for sounds like "sail" and "zoom," again, 00:07:17.188 --> 00:07:18.980 align:middle line:84% you're not actually touching that position. 00:07:18.980 --> 00:07:21.380 align:middle line:84% We'll talk more about the difference between "s" and "t" 00:07:21.380 --> 00:07:22.290 align:middle line:90% in just a second. 00:07:22.290 --> 00:07:23.840 align:middle line:84% But they're both alveolar sounds. 00:07:23.840 --> 00:07:25.910 align:middle line:84% Your tongue is pointing in the general direction 00:07:25.910 --> 00:07:28.190 align:middle line:90% of your alveolar ridge. 00:07:28.190 --> 00:07:29.630 align:middle line:90% Everybody have that sensation? 00:07:29.630 --> 00:07:32.690 align:middle line:84% You should all be exploring the insides of your own heads 00:07:32.690 --> 00:07:35.215 align:middle line:90% right now, yeah? 00:07:35.215 --> 00:07:35.715 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:07:35.715 --> 00:07:41.540 align:middle line:90% 00:07:41.540 --> 00:07:44.450 align:middle line:84% There's a type of sound that has been called alveopalatal. 00:07:44.450 --> 00:07:45.800 align:middle line:90% It's also called postalveolar. 00:07:45.800 --> 00:07:47.960 align:middle line:90% I'll call it postalveolar. 00:07:47.960 --> 00:07:51.830 align:middle line:84% If you think first about an "s" and then you think about 00:07:51.830 --> 00:07:55.100 align:middle line:84% a "sh," the "sh" at the beginning of "ship," 00:07:55.100 --> 00:08:01.620 align:middle line:84% if you go back and forth between them-- s, sh, s, sh-- 00:08:01.620 --> 00:08:04.030 align:middle line:90% you make a very soothing sound. 00:08:04.030 --> 00:08:04.530 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:08:04.530 --> 00:08:06.930 align:middle line:84% And maybe what you can feel is that your tongue 00:08:06.930 --> 00:08:08.972 align:middle line:90% is rocking back and forth. 00:08:08.972 --> 00:08:10.680 align:middle line:84% At least, that's what my tongue is doing. 00:08:10.680 --> 00:08:15.030 align:middle line:84% For "s," it's pointing at the front at my alveolar ridge. 00:08:15.030 --> 00:08:18.960 align:middle line:84% And then for "sh," the middle of my tongue curls up 00:08:18.960 --> 00:08:21.668 align:middle line:84% a little bit, goes a little further back. 00:08:21.668 --> 00:08:23.210 align:middle line:84% Is that the feeling people are having 00:08:23.210 --> 00:08:25.127 align:middle line:84% as they're going back and forth between these? 00:08:25.127 --> 00:08:27.077 align:middle line:90% 00:08:27.077 --> 00:08:28.160 align:middle line:90% Here's another new symbol. 00:08:28.160 --> 00:08:30.770 align:middle line:84% That's the symbol for the sound of the beginning of a "ship," 00:08:30.770 --> 00:08:31.790 align:middle line:90% and another new symbol. 00:08:31.790 --> 00:08:37.520 align:middle line:84% That's the sound in the middle of "azure," the "zh" sound. 00:08:37.520 --> 00:08:39.740 align:middle line:84% Both of those are postalveolar sounds. 00:08:39.740 --> 00:08:42.230 align:middle line:84% You'll sometimes see them called alveopalatal sounds. 00:08:42.230 --> 00:08:45.231 align:middle line:84% I'll try to remember to always call them postalveolar. 00:08:45.231 --> 00:08:45.731 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:08:45.731 --> 00:08:48.480 align:middle line:90% 00:08:48.480 --> 00:08:53.527 align:middle line:84% A little further back, there are what are called palatal sounds. 00:08:53.527 --> 00:08:55.860 align:middle line:84% These are either even further behind the alveolar ridge, 00:08:55.860 --> 00:08:57.930 align:middle line:84% back where the roof of your mouth 00:08:57.930 --> 00:08:59.520 align:middle line:84% gets as high as it's going to get. 00:08:59.520 --> 00:09:02.280 align:middle line:84% And the one palatal sound that we have in English 00:09:02.280 --> 00:09:04.920 align:middle line:84% is the "y" sound at the beginning of "year," yeah? 00:09:04.920 --> 00:09:07.410 align:middle line:84% And here's the first IPA symbol that is deliberately 00:09:07.410 --> 00:09:09.240 align:middle line:90% designed to confuse you. 00:09:09.240 --> 00:09:11.580 align:middle line:84% The IPA symbol for that sound, the "y" 00:09:11.580 --> 00:09:14.070 align:middle line:84% at the beginning of "year," is a "j," yeah. 00:09:14.070 --> 00:09:18.390 align:middle line:84% This is because the IPA was not invented exclusively 00:09:18.390 --> 00:09:19.830 align:middle line:90% by speakers of English, right? 00:09:19.830 --> 00:09:22.320 align:middle line:84% So it was invented also by speakers of languages 00:09:22.320 --> 00:09:26.610 align:middle line:84% like German, in which they use this letter for this sound. 00:09:26.610 --> 00:09:28.710 align:middle line:84% "Ja," for example, the German word 00:09:28.710 --> 00:09:30.810 align:middle line:90% for "yes," spelled J-A, yeah? 00:09:30.810 --> 00:09:33.240 align:middle line:90% Great. 00:09:33.240 --> 00:09:35.140 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:09:35.140 --> 00:09:36.940 align:middle line:84% The letter y is used for something else. 00:09:36.940 --> 00:09:39.470 align:middle line:90% We'll get to it. 00:09:39.470 --> 00:09:40.100 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:09:40.100 --> 00:09:42.852 align:middle line:84% And then continuing our tour of the mouth, 00:09:42.852 --> 00:09:45.060 align:middle line:84% so we're working our way backwards through the mouth, 00:09:45.060 --> 00:09:47.060 align:middle line:84% there are what are called velar sounds. 00:09:47.060 --> 00:09:50.150 align:middle line:84% In the velar sound, the body of your tongue 00:09:50.150 --> 00:09:52.067 align:middle line:84% is up against what's called the velum, which 00:09:52.067 --> 00:09:53.900 align:middle line:84% is the soft tissue at the back of your mouth 00:09:53.900 --> 00:09:56.150 align:middle line:84% that we're going to be hearing more about in a second. 00:09:56.150 --> 00:09:58.280 align:middle line:84% It's responsible for partitioning your mouth 00:09:58.280 --> 00:10:02.280 align:middle line:84% from your nose through your oral cavity. 00:10:02.280 --> 00:10:05.630 align:middle line:84% So that's the place that your tongue is touching 00:10:05.630 --> 00:10:07.820 align:middle line:84% when you say the sounds at the beginnings of words 00:10:07.820 --> 00:10:12.270 align:middle line:84% like "kernel," and "caught," and "gone," 00:10:12.270 --> 00:10:14.540 align:middle line:84% and when you make the nasal sound at the end 00:10:14.540 --> 00:10:16.520 align:middle line:90% of a word like "sing." 00:10:16.520 --> 00:10:21.500 align:middle line:84% So if you think about where your tongue is, it's up in the back 00:10:21.500 --> 00:10:22.280 align:middle line:90% there. 00:10:22.280 --> 00:10:24.710 align:middle line:90% Does that sound right? 00:10:24.710 --> 00:10:27.180 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:10:27.180 --> 00:10:30.590 align:middle line:90% OK, cool. 00:10:30.590 --> 00:10:35.060 align:middle line:84% And then going even further down, further down 00:10:35.060 --> 00:10:38.480 align:middle line:84% in your throat, you've got the vocal cords, the glottis, 00:10:38.480 --> 00:10:42.530 align:middle line:84% this space that's down there in your throat around your larynx, 00:10:42.530 --> 00:10:45.500 align:middle line:90% and your vocal cords. 00:10:45.500 --> 00:10:47.660 align:middle line:84% Or they're sometimes called your vocal folds. 00:10:47.660 --> 00:10:49.970 align:middle line:84% This process that you've got back here in your throat 00:10:49.970 --> 00:10:53.570 align:middle line:84% for closing off the air can be closed 00:10:53.570 --> 00:10:58.070 align:middle line:84% to make what's called a glottal stop. 00:10:58.070 --> 00:11:02.000 align:middle line:84% English doesn't make a huge amount 00:11:02.000 --> 00:11:03.470 align:middle line:90% of use of the glottal stop. 00:11:03.470 --> 00:11:07.470 align:middle line:84% But it's what shows up at the beginnings of words like 00:11:07.470 --> 00:11:10.490 align:middle line:84% "uh-uh," that catch that you're getting in your throat. 00:11:10.490 --> 00:11:13.010 align:middle line:90% "Uh-uh," meaning "no," right? 00:11:13.010 --> 00:11:17.450 align:middle line:90% Or "uh-oh," meaning "oh, dear." 00:11:17.450 --> 00:11:18.170 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:11:18.170 --> 00:11:20.420 align:middle line:84% That catch that you're getting in your throat-- that's 00:11:20.420 --> 00:11:21.470 align:middle line:90% a glottal stop, yeah? 00:11:21.470 --> 00:11:23.870 align:middle line:84% There are languages that are into glottal stops that 00:11:23.870 --> 00:11:25.070 align:middle line:90% have lots of them. 00:11:25.070 --> 00:11:27.560 align:middle line:90% English is not. 00:11:27.560 --> 00:11:30.423 align:middle line:84% And the way you make that is by basically 00:11:30.423 --> 00:11:31.840 align:middle line:84% slamming your vocal folds together 00:11:31.840 --> 00:11:34.000 align:middle line:90% to close off the flow of air. 00:11:34.000 --> 00:11:36.280 align:middle line:84% You can also hold them close together 00:11:36.280 --> 00:11:38.140 align:middle line:90% and let the air whistle past. 00:11:38.140 --> 00:11:39.850 align:middle line:84% That's how you make an "h," right? 00:11:39.850 --> 00:11:42.460 align:middle line:84% As in, what's my word up there-- "help," yeah. 00:11:42.460 --> 00:11:45.370 align:middle line:84% So you're just slightly abrading the flow of air. 00:11:45.370 --> 00:11:47.790 align:middle line:90% 00:11:47.790 --> 00:11:48.290 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:11:48.290 --> 00:11:51.457 align:middle line:90% 00:11:51.457 --> 00:11:53.290 align:middle line:84% Yeah, there are questions about any of that? 00:11:53.290 --> 00:11:54.950 align:middle line:84% So that was just a quick tour through the vocal tract. 00:11:54.950 --> 00:11:55.640 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:11:55.640 --> 00:11:57.418 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Where's, like, "chuh"? 00:11:57.418 --> 00:11:59.460 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, we haven't gotten to "chuh." 00:11:59.460 --> 00:12:01.240 align:middle line:90% Yeah, but good question. 00:12:01.240 --> 00:12:04.770 align:middle line:90% We can think of what that is. 00:12:04.770 --> 00:12:06.840 align:middle line:84% A "ch" sound at the beginning of a word 00:12:06.840 --> 00:12:12.840 align:middle line:84% like "church," also at the end of a word like "church," 00:12:12.840 --> 00:12:15.960 align:middle line:90% is a dynamic sound, right? 00:12:15.960 --> 00:12:20.670 align:middle line:84% Ch-- I think your tongue is in motion 00:12:20.670 --> 00:12:22.330 align:middle line:90% as you are making that sound. 00:12:22.330 --> 00:12:22.830 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:12:22.830 --> 00:12:26.790 align:middle line:90% So it makes one-- 00:12:26.790 --> 00:12:29.100 align:middle line:84% it completely stops the flow of air. 00:12:29.100 --> 00:12:33.540 align:middle line:84% And then it gradually peels back and allows the air to flow out. 00:12:33.540 --> 00:12:36.750 align:middle line:84% You can think of that first thing it's doing as-- 00:12:36.750 --> 00:12:39.180 align:middle line:84% I'm on completely the wrong slide-- 00:12:39.180 --> 00:12:42.210 align:middle line:84% as being like an alveolar stop, right? 00:12:42.210 --> 00:12:44.820 align:middle line:90% So it's like a "t." 00:12:44.820 --> 00:12:48.930 align:middle line:84% And then as it peels back, "ch," you 00:12:48.930 --> 00:12:52.020 align:middle line:84% end up with something like a "shuh," like a postalveolar. 00:12:52.020 --> 00:12:54.530 align:middle line:84% So it's a pretty complicated sound. 00:12:54.530 --> 00:12:55.530 align:middle line:90% And we'll talk about it. 00:12:55.530 --> 00:12:58.670 align:middle line:84% Yeah, that's a really good question. 00:12:58.670 --> 00:12:59.350 align:middle line:90% Other questions? 00:12:59.350 --> 00:12:59.980 align:middle line:90% Somebody had a question? 00:12:59.980 --> 00:13:00.270 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:13:00.270 --> 00:13:02.580 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: What's the difference between a glottal stop 00:13:02.580 --> 00:13:03.970 align:middle line:90% and an ending consonant? 00:13:03.970 --> 00:13:04.360 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: I'm sorry. 00:13:04.360 --> 00:13:04.930 align:middle line:90% Say it again? 00:13:04.930 --> 00:13:07.513 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: What's the difference between a glottal stop and and, 00:13:07.513 --> 00:13:08.953 align:middle line:90% say, an ending consonant? 00:13:08.953 --> 00:13:10.495 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: An ending consonant? 00:13:10.495 --> 00:13:11.197 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Yeah. 00:13:11.197 --> 00:13:13.530 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: What kind of ending consonant did you-- 00:13:13.530 --> 00:13:14.763 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE] 00:13:14.763 --> 00:13:15.930 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, oh, oh. 00:13:15.930 --> 00:13:17.590 align:middle line:84% Yeah, so that's a really good point. 00:13:17.590 --> 00:13:24.000 align:middle line:84% So glottal stop-- take a word like put, right? 00:13:24.000 --> 00:13:27.090 align:middle line:90% 00:13:27.090 --> 00:13:30.600 align:middle line:90% If you say put, your tongue-- 00:13:30.600 --> 00:13:32.130 align:middle line:90% at least, my tongue-- 00:13:32.130 --> 00:13:33.420 align:middle line:90% touches the alveolar ridge. 00:13:33.420 --> 00:13:36.210 align:middle line:84% It goes where I said it would, yeah? 00:13:36.210 --> 00:13:37.530 align:middle line:90% But you're right. 00:13:37.530 --> 00:13:40.530 align:middle line:84% You also make a glottal stop, at least the way I just said it. 00:13:40.530 --> 00:13:42.112 align:middle line:90% Put, yeah? 00:13:42.112 --> 00:13:46.770 align:middle line:90% 00:13:46.770 --> 00:13:48.040 align:middle line:90% You could contrast that. 00:13:48.040 --> 00:13:50.700 align:middle line:84% If you didn't make the closure at the alveolar ridge, 00:13:50.700 --> 00:13:53.470 align:middle line:90% it would sound like "puh." 00:13:53.470 --> 00:13:54.790 align:middle line:90% "Puh," right? 00:13:54.790 --> 00:13:56.890 align:middle line:84% Which is not an English word for me. 00:13:56.890 --> 00:13:59.530 align:middle line:84% There are dialects of English in which that's 00:13:59.530 --> 00:14:01.430 align:middle line:90% something you would say, right? 00:14:01.430 --> 00:14:03.640 align:middle line:90% "Puh." 00:14:03.640 --> 00:14:07.570 align:middle line:84% There are places in English where 00:14:07.570 --> 00:14:11.290 align:middle line:84% things that we write as other kinds of sounds 00:14:11.290 --> 00:14:13.840 align:middle line:84% actually are, in fact, glottal stops, at least in my English. 00:14:13.840 --> 00:14:17.065 align:middle line:84% So the difference for me between "can" and "can't"-- 00:14:17.065 --> 00:14:19.840 align:middle line:90% 00:14:19.840 --> 00:14:22.060 align:middle line:84% my wife, who is Japanese, is driven crazy 00:14:22.060 --> 00:14:24.970 align:middle line:84% by the difference between "can" and "can't" because they're 00:14:24.970 --> 00:14:27.310 align:middle line:90% virtually the same, right? 00:14:27.310 --> 00:14:29.260 align:middle line:84% It's very hard for her to figure out, often, 00:14:29.260 --> 00:14:31.000 align:middle line:84% whether I'm saying "can" or "can't." 00:14:31.000 --> 00:14:34.840 align:middle line:84% Because the difference between them is really mostly just-- 00:14:34.840 --> 00:14:38.980 align:middle line:84% "can't" is really just "can" plus a glottal stop. 00:14:38.980 --> 00:14:42.520 align:middle line:84% I'm not saying "can't," usually, unless I'm being very emphatic. 00:14:42.520 --> 00:14:44.950 align:middle line:90% Yeah, good question. 00:14:44.950 --> 00:14:46.900 align:middle line:90% Yes? 00:14:46.900 --> 00:14:49.150 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Is it cool for the same sound 00:14:49.150 --> 00:14:54.400 align:middle line:84% to be heard audibly but with a different part of your mouth. 00:14:54.400 --> 00:14:56.660 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yes, yes, there are things like that. 00:14:56.660 --> 00:14:57.910 align:middle line:90% Do you have something in mind? 00:14:57.910 --> 00:14:58.190 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: No. 00:14:58.190 --> 00:14:59.290 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, OK. 00:14:59.290 --> 00:15:01.780 align:middle line:90% So we haven't gotten yet to "r." 00:15:01.780 --> 00:15:03.250 align:middle line:90% We'll get to "r," eventually. 00:15:03.250 --> 00:15:06.200 align:middle line:84% But actually, people discovered at a certain point-- 00:15:06.200 --> 00:15:09.202 align:middle line:84% so people investigate this kind of thing in all kinds of ways. 00:15:09.202 --> 00:15:11.410 align:middle line:84% One is the kind of thing for all doing, where we just 00:15:11.410 --> 00:15:13.060 align:middle line:84% sit and say, what is my mouth doing? 00:15:13.060 --> 00:15:15.970 align:middle line:90% Hmm. 00:15:15.970 --> 00:15:19.780 align:middle line:84% There's other kinds of work where people classically 00:15:19.780 --> 00:15:23.450 align:middle line:84% paint the roof of your mouth with stuff that will come off. 00:15:23.450 --> 00:15:25.600 align:middle line:84% And then you have people produce a sound. 00:15:25.600 --> 00:15:27.400 align:middle line:84% And then you stick a camera in their mouth 00:15:27.400 --> 00:15:31.690 align:middle line:84% and take pictures and see which parts of the paint came off. 00:15:31.690 --> 00:15:34.510 align:middle line:84% You stick tubes down people's nose to measure airflow. 00:15:34.510 --> 00:15:37.480 align:middle line:84% You do all kinds of horrible invasive things. 00:15:37.480 --> 00:15:39.910 align:middle line:84% These days, people do a lot of MRIs. 00:15:39.910 --> 00:15:46.270 align:middle line:84% I'm going to put on the website a couple of websites that 00:15:46.270 --> 00:15:48.760 align:middle line:84% have charts of all of the sounds that we're 00:15:48.760 --> 00:15:52.000 align:middle line:84% going to talk about plus many more together with MRIs 00:15:52.000 --> 00:15:55.420 align:middle line:84% of the insides of people's mouths making these sounds 00:15:55.420 --> 00:15:57.527 align:middle line:84% so that you can see the anatomy that's involved. 00:15:57.527 --> 00:15:59.110 align:middle line:84% You won't just have to think about it. 00:15:59.110 --> 00:16:00.460 align:middle line:84% One of the things people have discovered 00:16:00.460 --> 00:16:01.877 align:middle line:84% as they're doing this kind of work 00:16:01.877 --> 00:16:04.150 align:middle line:84% is that people just have different ways of producing 00:16:04.150 --> 00:16:07.840 align:middle line:84% "r," that there are just different kinds of things 00:16:07.840 --> 00:16:10.390 align:middle line:84% you can do with your anatomy to make an "r" sound. 00:16:10.390 --> 00:16:12.730 align:middle line:84% And that's probably related to the fact 00:16:12.730 --> 00:16:14.820 align:middle line:84% that "r" is one of the kinds of sounds 00:16:14.820 --> 00:16:16.570 align:middle line:84% that people classically have trouble with. 00:16:16.570 --> 00:16:18.820 align:middle line:84% If you've been around small children, for example, 00:16:18.820 --> 00:16:22.300 align:middle line:84% it's standard for them to not quite get "r" right 00:16:22.300 --> 00:16:24.100 align:middle line:84% and to say something that sounds more 00:16:24.100 --> 00:16:27.140 align:middle line:90% like a "w" at a certain stage. 00:16:27.140 --> 00:16:27.972 align:middle line:90% So I'm sorry. 00:16:27.972 --> 00:16:29.680 align:middle line:84% The short answer to your question is yes. 00:16:29.680 --> 00:16:31.015 align:middle line:90% And "r" might be an example. 00:16:31.015 --> 00:16:33.800 align:middle line:90% 00:16:33.800 --> 00:16:34.340 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:16:34.340 --> 00:16:35.000 align:middle line:90% Good questions. 00:16:35.000 --> 00:16:38.560 align:middle line:84% Any other things we want to talk about? 00:16:38.560 --> 00:16:41.210 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:16:41.210 --> 00:16:41.710 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:16:41.710 --> 00:16:44.010 align:middle line:90% So we went through that. 00:16:44.010 --> 00:16:44.510 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:16:44.510 --> 00:16:46.780 align:middle line:84% So now I already alluded to the fact 00:16:46.780 --> 00:16:53.580 align:middle line:84% that I had these slides that had various places of articulation 00:16:53.580 --> 00:16:54.080 align:middle line:90% on them. 00:16:54.080 --> 00:16:58.250 align:middle line:84% But of course, each slide had multiple sounds on it. 00:16:58.250 --> 00:17:00.460 align:middle line:84% And so a place of articulation is obviously 00:17:00.460 --> 00:17:01.875 align:middle line:90% not the whole story. 00:17:01.875 --> 00:17:03.250 align:middle line:84% Here's another part of the story. 00:17:03.250 --> 00:17:05.859 align:middle line:90% It's what's called voicing. 00:17:05.859 --> 00:17:10.119 align:middle line:84% So if you think about an "s" and a "z," 00:17:10.119 --> 00:17:11.829 align:middle line:90% those are both alveolar sounds. 00:17:11.829 --> 00:17:16.810 align:middle line:84% Your tongue is reaching toward the alveolar ridge. 00:17:16.810 --> 00:17:18.790 align:middle line:90% But they're not the same. 00:17:18.790 --> 00:17:20.502 align:middle line:84% What's the difference between them? 00:17:20.502 --> 00:17:22.960 align:middle line:84% If you think about-- if you go back and forth between them, 00:17:22.960 --> 00:17:31.925 align:middle line:84% s, z, s, z, s, z, you can feel a buzzing. 00:17:31.925 --> 00:17:33.230 align:middle line:90% [CHUCKLING] 00:17:33.230 --> 00:17:36.140 align:middle line:84% And if you put your hand right here-- 00:17:36.140 --> 00:17:40.160 align:middle line:84% sorry, if you put your hand right here, right 00:17:40.160 --> 00:17:45.190 align:middle line:84% here on your throat, then when you make the "z" sound, 00:17:45.190 --> 00:17:48.280 align:middle line:84% you can find the source of that buzzing. 00:17:48.280 --> 00:17:51.100 align:middle line:84% It's right there in your larynx, yeah? 00:17:51.100 --> 00:17:54.310 align:middle line:84% What's happening when you make a "z" is that you're 00:17:54.310 --> 00:17:59.980 align:middle line:84% holding your vocal folds across the flow of air in such a way 00:17:59.980 --> 00:18:02.920 align:middle line:84% that they will flap in the breeze as the air goes by. 00:18:02.920 --> 00:18:04.510 align:middle line:90% They'll vibrate, yeah? 00:18:04.510 --> 00:18:08.170 align:middle line:84% It's like whistling with a blade of grass, 00:18:08.170 --> 00:18:10.250 align:middle line:84% or playing a reed instrument, right? 00:18:10.250 --> 00:18:13.870 align:middle line:84% It's getting something to vibrate really fast. 00:18:13.870 --> 00:18:15.245 align:middle line:90% And that's what you're hearing. 00:18:15.245 --> 00:18:17.620 align:middle line:84% That's that buzzing sound that you're hearing and feeling 00:18:17.620 --> 00:18:21.580 align:middle line:84% if you put your hand right here when you're doing a "z." 00:18:21.580 --> 00:18:26.095 align:middle line:84% We say that "z" is voiced and that "s" is voiceless. 00:18:26.095 --> 00:18:27.910 align:middle line:84% So it's a distinction in voicing. 00:18:27.910 --> 00:18:28.893 align:middle line:90% Yes? 00:18:28.893 --> 00:18:32.173 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Just the fact that [INAUDIBLE]?? 00:18:32.173 --> 00:18:33.840 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah, so the difference 00:18:33.840 --> 00:18:35.520 align:middle line:90% between "cats" and "dogs"-- 00:18:35.520 --> 00:18:36.720 align:middle line:90% yeah. 00:18:36.720 --> 00:18:37.895 align:middle line:90% So exactly. 00:18:37.895 --> 00:18:39.270 align:middle line:84% I was going to get to that later, 00:18:39.270 --> 00:18:40.630 align:middle line:90% but yes, that's exactly it. 00:18:40.630 --> 00:18:44.100 align:middle line:84% So what's the difference between a cat and a dog? 00:18:44.100 --> 00:18:46.230 align:middle line:84% Well, as far as a phonologist is concerned, 00:18:46.230 --> 00:18:51.090 align:middle line:84% the difference is that "cat" and "dog" end in sounds 00:18:51.090 --> 00:18:53.130 align:middle line:90% that differ in voicing. 00:18:53.130 --> 00:18:57.670 align:middle line:84% Is "t" voiced or voiceless, the "t" at the end of "cat"? 00:18:57.670 --> 00:18:58.720 align:middle line:90% Voiceless, yeah. 00:18:58.720 --> 00:19:01.540 align:middle line:84% And the "g" at the end of "dog" is voiced. 00:19:01.540 --> 00:19:03.220 align:middle line:90% And you're choosing "s" or "z." 00:19:03.220 --> 00:19:05.090 align:middle line:84% You're putting the sound that agrees 00:19:05.090 --> 00:19:07.090 align:middle line:84% in voicing with the consonant that's at the end. 00:19:07.090 --> 00:19:08.110 align:middle line:90% That's exactly right. 00:19:08.110 --> 00:19:08.650 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:19:08.650 --> 00:19:14.040 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: So then is it possible to whisper "z"s and "g"s? 00:19:14.040 --> 00:19:15.130 align:middle line:90% Are they-- 00:19:15.130 --> 00:19:16.047 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 00:19:16.047 --> 00:19:17.517 align:middle line:84% So this is a really good question 00:19:17.517 --> 00:19:19.600 align:middle line:84% which I was hoping not to get asked quite so soon. 00:19:19.600 --> 00:19:21.320 align:middle line:90% But no, that's good. 00:19:21.320 --> 00:19:21.820 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:19:21.820 --> 00:19:25.845 align:middle line:84% So she just asked, what are you doing when you're whispering? 00:19:25.845 --> 00:19:27.220 align:middle line:84% So if you think about what you're 00:19:27.220 --> 00:19:30.673 align:middle line:84% doing when you're whispering, first of all, (WHISPERING) 00:19:30.673 --> 00:19:32.788 align:middle line:84% your vocal cords are not vibrating at all. 00:19:32.788 --> 00:19:34.330 align:middle line:84% (SPEAKING NORMALLY) Your vocal chords 00:19:34.330 --> 00:19:38.170 align:middle line:84% are not vibrating at all at any point, right? 00:19:38.170 --> 00:19:43.240 align:middle line:84% So that should mean that you're not making the distinction 00:19:43.240 --> 00:19:45.938 align:middle line:84% between "s" and "z," or between "f" and "v," 00:19:45.938 --> 00:19:47.605 align:middle line:84% or-- what's my other example here-- "th" 00:19:47.605 --> 00:19:48.520 align:middle line:84% [pronounced as in "thistle"] and "th" [pronounced as in "this"], 00:19:48.520 --> 00:19:49.020 align:middle line:90% right? 00:19:49.020 --> 00:19:52.025 align:middle line:84% So the difference between "bath" and "bathe" is that the "th" 00:19:52.025 --> 00:19:54.025 align:middle line:84% [pronounced as in "this"] is voiced and the "th" 00:19:54.025 --> 00:19:56.620 align:middle line:84% [pronounced as in "thistle"] is voiceless, yeah? 00:19:56.620 --> 00:19:59.540 align:middle line:84% But that doesn't seem to be true, right? 00:19:59.540 --> 00:20:02.605 align:middle line:84% If you whisper "safe" and "save"-- 00:20:02.605 --> 00:20:05.400 align:middle line:90% 00:20:05.400 --> 00:20:07.780 align:middle line:84% (WHISPERING) "safe," "save"-- (SPEAKING NORMALLY) 00:20:07.780 --> 00:20:09.680 align:middle line:84% you have the feeling that you can 00:20:09.680 --> 00:20:11.630 align:middle line:84% hear the difference between them, yeah? 00:20:11.630 --> 00:20:14.060 align:middle line:84% I think if you were to whisper one of these-- 00:20:14.060 --> 00:20:15.410 align:middle line:90% so do a controlled experiment. 00:20:15.410 --> 00:20:16.380 align:middle line:90% Go back to your dorm. 00:20:16.380 --> 00:20:18.005 align:middle line:84% Whisper to your dorm mate, (WHISPERING) 00:20:18.005 --> 00:20:19.190 align:middle line:84% "safe." (SPEAKING NORMALLY) And then find out 00:20:19.190 --> 00:20:20.700 align:middle line:90% what they think you said. 00:20:20.700 --> 00:20:21.200 align:middle line:90% [CHUCKLING] 00:20:21.200 --> 00:20:25.610 align:middle line:84% Maybe warn them in advance of what you're going to do. 00:20:25.610 --> 00:20:29.090 align:middle line:90% [LAUGHS] Oh, boy. 00:20:29.090 --> 00:20:31.800 align:middle line:90% The complaints. 00:20:31.800 --> 00:20:32.300 align:middle line:90% Yes. 00:20:32.300 --> 00:20:34.845 align:middle line:84% So there's got to be something else going on, right? 00:20:34.845 --> 00:20:36.470 align:middle line:84% Let's do this experiment again, though. 00:20:36.470 --> 00:20:38.637 align:middle line:84% So it's easiest for you, actually, with "f" and "v." 00:20:38.637 --> 00:20:40.080 align:middle line:90% So let's do this thing again. 00:20:40.080 --> 00:20:42.282 align:middle line:84% If we go back and forth between "f" and "v"-- 00:20:42.282 --> 00:20:47.630 align:middle line:84% f, v, f, v, f, v, which of them is voiced? 00:20:47.630 --> 00:20:48.500 align:middle line:90% The "v," right? 00:20:48.500 --> 00:20:49.460 align:middle line:90% The "v" is voiced. 00:20:49.460 --> 00:20:50.090 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:20:50.090 --> 00:20:52.151 align:middle line:90% Now do it again, but whisper-- 00:20:52.151 --> 00:20:55.448 align:middle line:90% f, v, f, v, f, v, f. 00:20:55.448 --> 00:20:58.750 align:middle line:90% 00:20:58.750 --> 00:21:03.980 align:middle line:84% Does anybody feel a difference between "f" and "v"? 00:21:03.980 --> 00:21:06.795 align:middle line:90% Not here, right? 00:21:06.795 --> 00:21:07.295 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:21:07.295 --> 00:21:08.756 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: I guess the "v" is more-- 00:21:08.756 --> 00:21:11.440 align:middle line:90% there's more air [INAUDIBLE] 00:21:11.440 --> 00:21:14.150 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: So yes? 00:21:14.150 --> 00:21:17.340 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Also, my mouth is opening slower, I think. 00:21:17.340 --> 00:21:20.123 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Ah-- f, v, f, v. Yeah, there 00:21:20.123 --> 00:21:22.290 align:middle line:84% might be a difference in the aperture of your mouth. 00:21:22.290 --> 00:21:23.165 align:middle line:90% I think you're right. 00:21:23.165 --> 00:21:25.380 align:middle line:84% And I think you're right, too, that there's 00:21:25.380 --> 00:21:28.512 align:middle line:84% a difference in how fast the air is flowing. 00:21:28.512 --> 00:21:30.720 align:middle line:84% For me, I actually have the opposite of your feeling. 00:21:30.720 --> 00:21:34.230 align:middle line:84% For me, f, v, f, v-- for me, there's 00:21:34.230 --> 00:21:37.790 align:middle line:84% more air when there's an "f" and less air when there's a "v." 00:21:37.790 --> 00:21:38.290 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:21:38.290 --> 00:21:40.150 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: I don't have it with the "v," but when I say "v," 00:21:40.150 --> 00:21:41.690 align:middle line:90% my lips are a little narrower. 00:21:41.690 --> 00:21:43.447 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Ooh. 00:21:43.447 --> 00:21:47.120 align:middle line:90% F, v, f, v. Bah. 00:21:47.120 --> 00:21:48.520 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:21:48.520 --> 00:21:50.810 align:middle line:90% My jaw is moving as I do that. 00:21:50.810 --> 00:21:53.890 align:middle line:84% And I think that is affecting what my lips are doing. 00:21:53.890 --> 00:21:55.360 align:middle line:90% They're coming together more. 00:21:55.360 --> 00:21:58.540 align:middle line:84% So I think what's happening may be-- maybe this is an attempt 00:21:58.540 --> 00:22:03.550 align:middle line:84% to answer your question-- is that so I just said sounds can 00:22:03.550 --> 00:22:05.465 align:middle line:90% be either voiced or voiceless. 00:22:05.465 --> 00:22:07.840 align:middle line:84% If they're voiced, what it means is that your vocal cords 00:22:07.840 --> 00:22:08.740 align:middle line:90% are vibrating. 00:22:08.740 --> 00:22:10.540 align:middle line:84% And I made it sound like the way you 00:22:10.540 --> 00:22:12.610 align:middle line:84% do that is, well, you stick your vocal cords 00:22:12.610 --> 00:22:13.900 align:middle line:90% into the flow of air, right? 00:22:13.900 --> 00:22:15.178 align:middle line:90% And you make them vibrate. 00:22:15.178 --> 00:22:16.720 align:middle line:84% But I think maybe what we're learning 00:22:16.720 --> 00:22:18.640 align:middle line:84% is that you do some other things, too, 00:22:18.640 --> 00:22:21.190 align:middle line:84% to optimize the flow of air so that you 00:22:21.190 --> 00:22:24.820 align:middle line:84% will get a good vibration going, that maybe if the flow of air 00:22:24.820 --> 00:22:26.710 align:middle line:84% is too fast and maybe we're learning things 00:22:26.710 --> 00:22:30.160 align:middle line:84% about the aperture of your mouth as well, 00:22:30.160 --> 00:22:33.400 align:middle line:84% there's a way of making sure that the pressure that you're 00:22:33.400 --> 00:22:35.313 align:middle line:84% getting, the rush of air that you're getting 00:22:35.313 --> 00:22:36.730 align:middle line:84% on your vocal cords will make them 00:22:36.730 --> 00:22:38.200 align:middle line:90% vibrate in just the right way. 00:22:38.200 --> 00:22:40.810 align:middle line:84% And you're manipulating all of that stuff 00:22:40.810 --> 00:22:42.400 align:middle line:90% without thinking about it. 00:22:42.400 --> 00:22:44.890 align:middle line:84% And you can still hear it when you whisper. 00:22:44.890 --> 00:22:47.410 align:middle line:84% So when you whisper, you're not engaging your vocal cords, 00:22:47.410 --> 00:22:49.010 align:middle line:84% but you're doing all the other stuff. 00:22:49.010 --> 00:22:51.760 align:middle line:84% And that's what you're using to hear the difference. 00:22:51.760 --> 00:22:53.650 align:middle line:84% There's experimental work on this. 00:22:53.650 --> 00:22:56.370 align:middle line:84% This is the kind of thing people try to figure out. 00:22:56.370 --> 00:22:59.530 align:middle line:90% Yeah, really good question. 00:22:59.530 --> 00:23:00.405 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:23:00.405 --> 00:23:02.572 align:middle line:84% OK, so your vocal cords can either be vibrating 00:23:02.572 --> 00:23:03.780 align:middle line:90% or they can not be vibrating. 00:23:03.780 --> 00:23:07.560 align:middle line:84% So you have voiced sounds and you have voiceless sounds. 00:23:07.560 --> 00:23:10.860 align:middle line:84% So "s" and "z" and "t" and "d' are all alveolar. 00:23:10.860 --> 00:23:12.960 align:middle line:90% But "s" and "t" are voiceless. 00:23:12.960 --> 00:23:15.360 align:middle line:90% And "z" and "d" are voiced. 00:23:15.360 --> 00:23:16.530 align:middle line:90% Does that all sound right? 00:23:16.530 --> 00:23:19.110 align:middle line:90% Is anyone upset by any of that? 00:23:19.110 --> 00:23:19.950 align:middle line:90% Disturbed? 00:23:19.950 --> 00:23:21.300 align:middle line:90% Alarmed? 00:23:21.300 --> 00:23:22.930 align:middle line:90% Hungry? 00:23:22.930 --> 00:23:23.680 align:middle line:90% Yeah, anything? 00:23:23.680 --> 00:23:24.730 align:middle line:90% OK, good. 00:23:24.730 --> 00:23:32.370 align:middle line:84% So it's back to the Polish plurals. 00:23:32.370 --> 00:23:36.780 align:middle line:84% So we saw before, we convinced ourselves, 00:23:36.780 --> 00:23:37.950 align:middle line:90% or I convinced myself-- 00:23:37.950 --> 00:23:39.540 align:middle line:84% and I tried to take the rest of you 00:23:39.540 --> 00:23:41.190 align:middle line:90% with me as collateral damage-- 00:23:41.190 --> 00:23:46.110 align:middle line:84% that Polish has words that end in "k" and words 00:23:46.110 --> 00:23:48.210 align:middle line:90% that end in "g" underlyingly. 00:23:48.210 --> 00:23:50.910 align:middle line:84% But it also has a rule that changes "g" to "k" 00:23:50.910 --> 00:23:51.960 align:middle line:90% at the ends of words. 00:23:51.960 --> 00:23:54.590 align:middle line:90% That was Polish, right? 00:23:54.590 --> 00:23:57.630 align:middle line:90% OK, but it's not just "g." 00:23:57.630 --> 00:24:00.247 align:middle line:84% So we can see some other pairs of words. 00:24:00.247 --> 00:24:02.080 align:middle line:84% I don't have any more minimal pairs for you. 00:24:02.080 --> 00:24:05.940 align:middle line:84% But you can see there's the same general tendency that if we 00:24:05.940 --> 00:24:08.580 align:middle line:84% look at singulars in Polish, that they 00:24:08.580 --> 00:24:13.080 align:middle line:84% can end in sounds like "k," or "b," or "t," or "s," right? 00:24:13.080 --> 00:24:15.130 align:middle line:84% That's what we're seeing in these pairs. 00:24:15.130 --> 00:24:20.340 align:middle line:84% And when you pluralize them, some nouns that end in "p" 00:24:20.340 --> 00:24:24.210 align:middle line:84% still end in "p" when you add the "e," the suffix, 00:24:24.210 --> 00:24:25.830 align:middle line:90% like corpse. 00:24:25.830 --> 00:24:28.740 align:middle line:84% But some change the "p" to a "b," yeah? 00:24:28.740 --> 00:24:31.600 align:middle line:84% And the same deal for these other ones, right? 00:24:31.600 --> 00:24:36.750 align:middle line:84% So what we're learning is it isn't just that "g" becomes "k" 00:24:36.750 --> 00:24:39.420 align:middle line:90% at the end of a word in Polish. 00:24:39.420 --> 00:24:41.640 align:middle line:90% There's this more general thing. 00:24:41.640 --> 00:24:43.170 align:middle line:90% What's the more general thing? 00:24:43.170 --> 00:24:45.280 align:middle line:90% What's going on here? 00:24:45.280 --> 00:24:47.760 align:middle line:84% What's the difference between "g" and "k"? 00:24:47.760 --> 00:24:50.935 align:middle line:90% So they're both velar. 00:24:50.935 --> 00:24:51.435 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:24:51.435 --> 00:24:52.550 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: One's going to be voiced. 00:24:52.550 --> 00:24:53.467 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 00:24:53.467 --> 00:24:54.503 align:middle line:90% Which one is voiced? 00:24:54.503 --> 00:24:55.290 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: The "g." 00:24:55.290 --> 00:24:56.582 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: The "g," yeah. 00:24:56.582 --> 00:24:59.310 align:middle line:84% So what's happening is that the "g," which was voiced, 00:24:59.310 --> 00:25:03.330 align:middle line:84% is becoming voiceless at the ends of words in Polish, yeah. 00:25:03.330 --> 00:25:07.940 align:middle line:84% What's happening with "b" and "p"? 00:25:07.940 --> 00:25:08.720 align:middle line:90% Joseph? 00:25:08.720 --> 00:25:10.310 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Voiced "b" becomes voiceless. 00:25:10.310 --> 00:25:11.390 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah, the voiced "b" 00:25:11.390 --> 00:25:13.473 align:middle line:84% becomes the voiceless version, which is "p," yeah? 00:25:13.473 --> 00:25:15.500 align:middle line:90% Those are both bilabial sounds. 00:25:15.500 --> 00:25:16.730 align:middle line:90% They involve both your lips. 00:25:16.730 --> 00:25:17.795 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:25:17.795 --> 00:25:18.295 align:middle line:90% Yes? 00:25:18.295 --> 00:25:19.770 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: How is "b" voiced? 00:25:19.770 --> 00:25:20.250 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Sorry? 00:25:20.250 --> 00:25:21.375 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: How is "b" voiced? 00:25:21.375 --> 00:25:23.640 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: How is "d" voiced? 00:25:23.640 --> 00:25:24.468 align:middle line:90% Oh, "b." 00:25:24.468 --> 00:25:25.010 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Yes. 00:25:25.010 --> 00:25:25.936 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: "b." 00:25:25.936 --> 00:25:26.436 align:middle line:90% Buh. 00:25:26.436 --> 00:25:26.936 align:middle line:90% Buh. 00:25:26.936 --> 00:25:30.100 align:middle line:90% 00:25:30.100 --> 00:25:31.310 align:middle line:90% You're raising a good point. 00:25:31.310 --> 00:25:34.570 align:middle line:84% There's a reason that I started with sounds like "s" and "z," 00:25:34.570 --> 00:25:35.680 align:middle line:90% and "f" and "v." 00:25:35.680 --> 00:25:40.480 align:middle line:84% Because you can go s, z, s, z for as long as you have, 00:25:40.480 --> 00:25:41.950 align:middle line:90% breath right? 00:25:41.950 --> 00:25:49.030 align:middle line:84% Whereas buh-- there's a limit to how long you can "b," yeah? 00:25:49.030 --> 00:25:51.700 align:middle line:84% We just said the way voicing works 00:25:51.700 --> 00:25:54.820 align:middle line:84% is that you've got air flowing across your vocal folds 00:25:54.820 --> 00:25:56.710 align:middle line:90% and making them vibrate, right? 00:25:56.710 --> 00:25:59.420 align:middle line:84% And for a "z," you can see how that would work. 00:25:59.420 --> 00:26:00.610 align:middle line:90% So the air just flows. 00:26:00.610 --> 00:26:06.610 align:middle line:84% For a "b," well, the air only has so far to go, yeah? 00:26:06.610 --> 00:26:09.610 align:middle line:84% That's one reason you can't keep a "b" going for very long. 00:26:09.610 --> 00:26:13.000 align:middle line:84% All that air-- it has to flow past your vocal folds 00:26:13.000 --> 00:26:14.500 align:middle line:84% to get them to vibrate a little bit. 00:26:14.500 --> 00:26:15.792 align:middle line:90% And then it gets to your mouth. 00:26:15.792 --> 00:26:17.020 align:middle line:90% And then it has to stop. 00:26:17.020 --> 00:26:19.390 align:middle line:84% So there are other departments that are better at this 00:26:19.390 --> 00:26:19.940 align:middle line:90% than I am. 00:26:19.940 --> 00:26:21.850 align:middle line:84% But the air pressure in your mouth 00:26:21.850 --> 00:26:23.600 align:middle line:84% is going to build up past a certain point. 00:26:23.600 --> 00:26:26.080 align:middle line:84% You won't be able to keep doing that. 00:26:26.080 --> 00:26:28.060 align:middle line:84% But you do it for as long as you can. 00:26:28.060 --> 00:26:30.350 align:middle line:84% That's the sense in which it's voiced. 00:26:30.350 --> 00:26:32.110 align:middle line:90% Yeah, good question. 00:26:32.110 --> 00:26:33.692 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:26:33.692 --> 00:26:35.120 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:26:35.120 --> 00:26:36.920 align:middle line:84% So yeah, what's happening in Polish 00:26:36.920 --> 00:26:38.660 align:middle line:90% is not just "g" becomes "k." 00:26:38.660 --> 00:26:43.290 align:middle line:84% It's voiced sounds are becoming voiceless. 00:26:43.290 --> 00:26:45.440 align:middle line:90% So "z" becomes "s." 00:26:45.440 --> 00:26:47.600 align:middle line:84% "d" becomes "t." "b" becomes "p." 00:26:47.600 --> 00:26:48.920 align:middle line:90% And "g" becomes "k," yeah? 00:26:48.920 --> 00:26:51.590 align:middle line:84% So it was sometimes called final devoicing. 00:26:51.590 --> 00:26:54.530 align:middle line:84% And it's a cross-linguistically quite common phenomenon. 00:26:54.530 --> 00:26:57.310 align:middle line:90% 00:26:57.310 --> 00:26:58.870 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:26:58.870 --> 00:27:02.920 align:middle line:90% So yeah. 00:27:02.920 --> 00:27:04.140 align:middle line:90% All right. 00:27:04.140 --> 00:27:07.020 align:middle line:84% So we talked about place of articulation. 00:27:07.020 --> 00:27:09.160 align:middle line:90% And we've talked about voicing. 00:27:09.160 --> 00:27:11.850 align:middle line:84% Now we need to talk about another dimension 00:27:11.850 --> 00:27:14.280 align:middle line:84% for categorizing sounds, which is 00:27:14.280 --> 00:27:16.060 align:middle line:90% called manner of articulation. 00:27:16.060 --> 00:27:18.210 align:middle line:90% So think about "s" and "t." 00:27:18.210 --> 00:27:19.710 align:middle line:90% They're both alveolar. 00:27:19.710 --> 00:27:22.140 align:middle line:90% And they're both voiceless. 00:27:22.140 --> 00:27:24.390 align:middle line:84% But they're different from each other. 00:27:24.390 --> 00:27:26.760 align:middle line:84% And the way we distinguish them is via what 00:27:26.760 --> 00:27:28.600 align:middle line:90% we call manner of articulation. 00:27:28.600 --> 00:27:31.470 align:middle line:84% So they're both voiceless alveolar sounds, 00:27:31.470 --> 00:27:34.200 align:middle line:90% but "t" is a stop. 00:27:34.200 --> 00:27:37.330 align:middle line:84% And "s" is what's called a fricative. 00:27:37.330 --> 00:27:41.280 align:middle line:84% So stops are also called plosives. 00:27:41.280 --> 00:27:44.490 align:middle line:84% I promise never ever to call them plosives. 00:27:44.490 --> 00:27:46.890 align:middle line:84% I will always call them stops because that's 00:27:46.890 --> 00:27:48.060 align:middle line:90% what I grew up calling them. 00:27:48.060 --> 00:27:50.143 align:middle line:84% But you will sometimes see things written in which 00:27:50.143 --> 00:27:51.870 align:middle line:90% they're called plosives. 00:27:51.870 --> 00:27:54.030 align:middle line:84% In homeworks, if you ever need to write about them, 00:27:54.030 --> 00:27:55.520 align:middle line:84% feel free to call them either one. 00:27:55.520 --> 00:27:57.240 align:middle line:90% Doesn't matter. 00:27:57.240 --> 00:27:59.310 align:middle line:84% I like calling them stops because they're 00:27:59.310 --> 00:28:02.807 align:middle line:84% named after the fact that, well, they stop the flow of air. 00:28:02.807 --> 00:28:03.640 align:middle line:90% That's what they do. 00:28:03.640 --> 00:28:04.680 align:middle line:90% That's what a stop is. 00:28:04.680 --> 00:28:06.472 align:middle line:84% And so the air is coming out of your lungs. 00:28:06.472 --> 00:28:09.240 align:middle line:90% And it gets stopped. 00:28:09.240 --> 00:28:12.810 align:middle line:84% Fricatives like "s" are sounds in which you don't stop 00:28:12.810 --> 00:28:17.940 align:middle line:84% the flow of air, but you narrow some aperture enough 00:28:17.940 --> 00:28:20.130 align:middle line:84% to create turbulent air flow, which 00:28:20.130 --> 00:28:22.780 align:middle line:90% you hear as a hissing sound. 00:28:22.780 --> 00:28:26.460 align:middle line:84% So sounds like "s" and "sh" and "f" and "th"-- 00:28:26.460 --> 00:28:29.510 align:middle line:90% these are all fricatives, yeah? 00:28:29.510 --> 00:28:30.010 align:middle line:90% OK? 00:28:30.010 --> 00:28:34.360 align:middle line:90% 00:28:34.360 --> 00:28:37.180 align:middle line:84% So for "t" and "d," the airflow is stopped. 00:28:37.180 --> 00:28:41.230 align:middle line:84% For "s" and "z," the airflow is restricted, but is not stopped. 00:28:41.230 --> 00:28:45.040 align:middle line:84% So you hold your tongue close to the alveolar ridge, 00:28:45.040 --> 00:28:47.335 align:middle line:84% but you allow air to keep flowing through. 00:28:47.335 --> 00:28:49.648 align:middle line:90% 00:28:49.648 --> 00:28:51.190 align:middle line:84% This is the conversation we just had. 00:28:51.190 --> 00:28:54.340 align:middle line:84% That's why an "s,", you can keep going for 00:28:54.340 --> 00:28:57.700 align:middle line:84% as long as you have breath in your lungs, whereas a "t," 00:28:57.700 --> 00:28:59.140 align:middle line:90% you can't keep executing it. 00:28:59.140 --> 00:29:01.970 align:middle line:90% 00:29:01.970 --> 00:29:03.270 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:29:03.270 --> 00:29:03.770 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:29:03.770 --> 00:29:08.180 align:middle line:84% So now we have these three ways of categorizing 00:29:08.180 --> 00:29:10.640 align:middle line:90% these kinds of speech sounds-- 00:29:10.640 --> 00:29:13.400 align:middle line:90% place, and manner, and voicing. 00:29:13.400 --> 00:29:16.970 align:middle line:84% Place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing. 00:29:16.970 --> 00:29:19.370 align:middle line:84% So there are a bunch of places of articulation 00:29:19.370 --> 00:29:21.500 align:middle line:90% over there on the left. 00:29:21.500 --> 00:29:24.350 align:middle line:84% And the sounds that we have mainly talked about 00:29:24.350 --> 00:29:26.360 align:middle line:84% have been either stops or fricatives. 00:29:26.360 --> 00:29:32.010 align:middle line:84% And then each of these places on the table-- 00:29:32.010 --> 00:29:34.640 align:middle line:90% there's a pair of sounds. 00:29:34.640 --> 00:29:37.100 align:middle line:84% And I hope I managed to do this right. 00:29:37.100 --> 00:29:39.080 align:middle line:90% Yes, it looks like I did. 00:29:39.080 --> 00:29:42.800 align:middle line:84% In all of these pairs, you've got both a voiced 00:29:42.800 --> 00:29:43.880 align:middle line:90% and a voiceless sound. 00:29:43.880 --> 00:29:45.858 align:middle line:90% Which one is first? 00:29:45.858 --> 00:29:46.900 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: The voiced sound 00:29:46.900 --> 00:29:48.567 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: The voiced sound, yeah. 00:29:48.567 --> 00:29:50.530 align:middle line:84% So in all of those, there's a pair. 00:29:50.530 --> 00:29:52.910 align:middle line:84% So you've got "zh" and "sh," for example, 00:29:52.910 --> 00:29:54.250 align:middle line:90% the postalveolar fricatives. 00:29:54.250 --> 00:29:56.020 align:middle line:90% And the "zh" is the voiced one. 00:29:56.020 --> 00:29:58.120 align:middle line:90% And the sh is the voiceless one. 00:29:58.120 --> 00:30:00.270 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:30:00.270 --> 00:30:00.870 align:middle line:90% OK, good. 00:30:00.870 --> 00:30:03.640 align:middle line:90% 00:30:03.640 --> 00:30:06.470 align:middle line:84% All right, so now new class of sounds. 00:30:06.470 --> 00:30:08.420 align:middle line:84% This is a new manner of articulation. 00:30:08.420 --> 00:30:11.170 align:middle line:84% So we've got "d," which is a voiced alveolar stop, 00:30:11.170 --> 00:30:14.260 align:middle line:84% and "z," which is a voiced alveolar fricative. 00:30:14.260 --> 00:30:16.990 align:middle line:84% And now we need to think about "n." 00:30:16.990 --> 00:30:20.860 align:middle line:90% Well, "n" is voiced-- 00:30:20.860 --> 00:30:22.480 align:middle line:90% nnnnn. 00:30:22.480 --> 00:30:25.600 align:middle line:84% And it's a stop in the sense that you 00:30:25.600 --> 00:30:28.582 align:middle line:84% are stopping the air from flowing through your mouth. 00:30:28.582 --> 00:30:30.790 align:middle line:84% If you think about what's happening inside your mouth 00:30:30.790 --> 00:30:34.150 align:middle line:84% during an "n," your tongue is jammed against your alveolar 00:30:34.150 --> 00:30:35.610 align:middle line:90% ridge-- nnnnn-- 00:30:35.610 --> 00:30:42.563 align:middle line:84% just as it would be for a "t," So I love the sound 00:30:42.563 --> 00:30:43.730 align:middle line:90% of phonetics in the morning. 00:30:43.730 --> 00:30:44.508 align:middle line:90% It's great. 00:30:44.508 --> 00:30:46.460 align:middle line:90% [CHUCKLING] 00:30:46.460 --> 00:30:50.247 align:middle line:84% So when you're doing an "n," you've stopped the flow of air 00:30:50.247 --> 00:30:50.830 align:middle line:90% in your mouth. 00:30:50.830 --> 00:30:52.983 align:middle line:84% And so "n" is technically a stop, right? 00:30:52.983 --> 00:30:55.150 align:middle line:84% It's called a stop because there's no air coming out 00:30:55.150 --> 00:30:55.733 align:middle line:90% of your mouth. 00:30:55.733 --> 00:30:57.610 align:middle line:84% But there's air coming out somewhere, right? 00:30:57.610 --> 00:30:59.724 align:middle line:84% It's coming out of your nose, yeah? 00:30:59.724 --> 00:31:00.580 align:middle line:90% "nnnn." 00:31:00.580 --> 00:31:04.330 align:middle line:84% And you can tell because if you hold your nose, [demonstrates] 00:31:04.330 --> 00:31:06.610 align:middle line:84% you will not be able to make an "n," yeah? 00:31:06.610 --> 00:31:10.990 align:middle line:84% So the reason that you can keep an "n" going, again, 00:31:10.990 --> 00:31:14.320 align:middle line:84% for as long as you have breath, is, well, the air 00:31:14.320 --> 00:31:15.340 align:middle line:90% has someplace to go. 00:31:15.340 --> 00:31:18.010 align:middle line:90% It's going out your nose. 00:31:18.010 --> 00:31:21.850 align:middle line:84% What's happening when you make an "n" is that you are lowering 00:31:21.850 --> 00:31:25.600 align:middle line:84% the velum, which is this doohickey 00:31:25.600 --> 00:31:27.970 align:middle line:84% in the back of your mouth that partitions 00:31:27.970 --> 00:31:30.820 align:middle line:90% your nose from your mouth. 00:31:30.820 --> 00:31:34.190 align:middle line:84% By lowering it, you're allowing air to flow through your nose. 00:31:34.190 --> 00:31:36.730 align:middle line:84% So for "t" and "d," the airflow is 00:31:36.730 --> 00:31:38.140 align:middle line:90% stopped at the alveolar ridge. 00:31:38.140 --> 00:31:41.800 align:middle line:84% For "n," the airflow is also stopped at the alveolar ridge. 00:31:41.800 --> 00:31:43.098 align:middle line:90% It can't go through the mouth. 00:31:43.098 --> 00:31:44.140 align:middle line:90% It's stopped right there. 00:31:44.140 --> 00:31:46.240 align:middle line:90% But it goes through your nose. 00:31:46.240 --> 00:31:51.280 align:middle line:84% This is a nasal stop, a voiced alveolar nasal-- 00:31:51.280 --> 00:31:55.330 align:middle line:84% people often just call them nasals because nasal fricatives 00:31:55.330 --> 00:31:58.020 align:middle line:90% are messy. 00:31:58.020 --> 00:31:59.160 align:middle line:90% Actually, not possible. 00:31:59.160 --> 00:32:00.630 align:middle line:90% Possibly. 00:32:00.630 --> 00:32:01.130 align:middle line:90% OK? 00:32:01.130 --> 00:32:03.810 align:middle line:90% 00:32:03.810 --> 00:32:05.940 align:middle line:90% So let me go back. 00:32:05.940 --> 00:32:09.210 align:middle line:90% "n" is an alveolar nasal. 00:32:09.210 --> 00:32:12.585 align:middle line:84% What would a bilabial nasal sound like? 00:32:12.585 --> 00:32:14.365 align:middle line:90% "mmmm," yeah? 00:32:14.365 --> 00:32:15.260 align:middle line:90% That's an "m." 00:32:15.260 --> 00:32:17.187 align:middle line:84% You close your lips and allow the air 00:32:17.187 --> 00:32:18.270 align:middle line:90% to flow through your nose. 00:32:18.270 --> 00:32:19.545 align:middle line:90% And a velar nasal? 00:32:19.545 --> 00:32:22.285 align:middle line:90% 00:32:22.285 --> 00:32:24.230 align:middle line:90% "nnnng." 00:32:24.230 --> 00:32:27.140 align:middle line:84% Remember that velar means the place of articulation 00:32:27.140 --> 00:32:28.550 align:middle line:90% for a "k" or a "g." 00:32:28.550 --> 00:32:30.770 align:middle line:84% So you make a "k" or a "g" sound-- kuh-- 00:32:30.770 --> 00:32:33.020 align:middle line:84% and then just let air flow through your nose-- "nnnn." 00:32:33.020 --> 00:32:38.000 align:middle line:84% That's the sound at the end of a word like "song" or "king," 00:32:38.000 --> 00:32:39.450 align:middle line:90% making a velar nasal. 00:32:39.450 --> 00:32:39.950 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:32:39.950 --> 00:32:43.400 align:middle line:84% English doesn't allow words to begin with velar nasals. 00:32:43.400 --> 00:32:45.440 align:middle line:90% But there are languages that do. 00:32:45.440 --> 00:32:47.400 align:middle line:90% So Tagalog, for example-- 00:32:47.400 --> 00:32:51.800 align:middle line:90% the word for now is [TAGALOG]. 00:32:51.800 --> 00:32:53.702 align:middle line:90% So it starts with a velar nasal. 00:32:53.702 --> 00:32:55.910 align:middle line:84% One of the entertaining things about learning Tagalog 00:32:55.910 --> 00:32:58.410 align:middle line:84% is learning how to make sounds that start with velar nasals. 00:32:58.410 --> 00:33:00.740 align:middle line:84% If you're an English speaker, you're not used to it. 00:33:00.740 --> 00:33:01.770 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:33:01.770 --> 00:33:02.270 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:33:02.270 --> 00:33:05.890 align:middle line:90% 00:33:05.890 --> 00:33:08.410 align:middle line:84% So there there's the table again. 00:33:08.410 --> 00:33:10.590 align:middle line:84% So we've got stops and fricatives and nasals, 00:33:10.590 --> 00:33:12.850 align:middle line:90% nasal stops. 00:33:12.850 --> 00:33:14.470 align:middle line:84% Things can be voiced or voiceless. 00:33:14.470 --> 00:33:16.990 align:middle line:84% And we've got all those places of articulation 00:33:16.990 --> 00:33:18.220 align:middle line:90% over there on the left. 00:33:18.220 --> 00:33:19.450 align:middle line:84% Are there questions about any of this? 00:33:19.450 --> 00:33:21.033 align:middle line:84% Is anybody looking at this and saying, 00:33:21.033 --> 00:33:24.570 align:middle line:84% whoa, this table has grown out of my ability to keep up? 00:33:24.570 --> 00:33:25.070 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:33:25.070 --> 00:33:25.780 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Question about the [INAUDIBLE].. 00:33:25.780 --> 00:33:26.170 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 00:33:26.170 --> 00:33:27.520 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: -- English doesn't allow? 00:33:27.520 --> 00:33:28.660 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: English doesn't allow words 00:33:28.660 --> 00:33:30.460 align:middle line:90% to begin with velar nasals. 00:33:30.460 --> 00:33:31.990 align:middle line:84% We don't have any words that start 00:33:31.990 --> 00:33:35.050 align:middle line:84% with a sound that's at the end of words like "song." 00:33:35.050 --> 00:33:38.740 align:middle line:84% We don't have words like [NON-ENGLISH].. 00:33:38.740 --> 00:33:40.840 align:middle line:84% English doesn't have words like that. 00:33:40.840 --> 00:33:43.090 align:middle line:84% There are plenty of languages that do. 00:33:43.090 --> 00:33:44.020 align:middle line:90% Tagalog is one. 00:33:44.020 --> 00:33:45.430 align:middle line:90% Cantonese is one. 00:33:45.430 --> 00:33:46.580 align:middle line:90% There's a bunch of others. 00:33:46.580 --> 00:33:49.290 align:middle line:90% But English doesn't have that. 00:33:49.290 --> 00:33:50.760 align:middle line:90% Yes? 00:33:50.760 --> 00:33:53.160 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Well, I noticed there's not 00:33:53.160 --> 00:33:58.210 align:middle line:84% "j" in brackets for [INAUDIBLE] palatal? 00:33:58.210 --> 00:34:01.060 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, yeah. 00:34:01.060 --> 00:34:02.680 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Actually, I don't actually 00:34:02.680 --> 00:34:05.003 align:middle line:90% know where this "j" would go. 00:34:05.003 --> 00:34:05.920 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 00:34:05.920 --> 00:34:09.760 align:middle line:84% So we haven't yet gotten to the kind of sound that that "j"- 00:34:09.760 --> 00:34:11.710 align:middle line:84% the sound of the beginning of "year." 00:34:11.710 --> 00:34:12.710 align:middle line:90% You're absolutely right. 00:34:12.710 --> 00:34:14.330 align:middle line:90% There's a gap there. 00:34:14.330 --> 00:34:17.409 align:middle line:84% And I've put the palatal line there partly 00:34:17.409 --> 00:34:19.790 align:middle line:84% to get you to ask exactly that kind of question. 00:34:19.790 --> 00:34:22.570 align:middle line:84% So one of the points of this table-- 00:34:22.570 --> 00:34:25.340 align:middle line:84% it's like when the periodic table was first invented, 00:34:25.340 --> 00:34:25.840 align:middle line:90% I guess. 00:34:25.840 --> 00:34:28.328 align:middle line:84% So we have the system for categorizing sounds. 00:34:28.328 --> 00:34:30.370 align:middle line:84% And now we get to look at it and say, well, wait. 00:34:30.370 --> 00:34:32.500 align:middle line:84% Why isn't there anything there or there? 00:34:32.500 --> 00:34:34.880 align:middle line:84% And what would it be like if it were there? 00:34:34.880 --> 00:34:37.872 align:middle line:84% We'll do a little bit of that in a second. 00:34:37.872 --> 00:34:38.830 align:middle line:90% But yeah, you're right. 00:34:38.830 --> 00:34:42.100 align:middle line:84% So we haven't yet talked about the kind of sound 00:34:42.100 --> 00:34:45.730 align:middle line:84% that the IPA symbol "j"-- the sound we usually 00:34:45.730 --> 00:34:47.418 align:middle line:84% write with "y" in English, the sound 00:34:47.418 --> 00:34:49.960 align:middle line:84% of the beginning of "year"-- we haven't put that on the table 00:34:49.960 --> 00:34:50.460 align:middle line:90% yet. 00:34:50.460 --> 00:34:51.040 align:middle line:90% You're right. 00:34:51.040 --> 00:34:52.750 align:middle line:90% It's not a stop, right? 00:34:52.750 --> 00:34:54.969 align:middle line:84% It's also not a fricative because you're not making 00:34:54.969 --> 00:34:56.710 align:middle line:90% any turbulence in the airflow. 00:34:56.710 --> 00:34:57.970 align:middle line:90% And it's not nasal. 00:34:57.970 --> 00:34:59.230 align:middle line:90% So it's another kind of thing. 00:34:59.230 --> 00:35:01.387 align:middle line:90% We'll get to it. 00:35:01.387 --> 00:35:01.970 align:middle line:90% Good question. 00:35:01.970 --> 00:35:05.610 align:middle line:90% Other questions about this? 00:35:05.610 --> 00:35:09.230 align:middle line:90% OK, all right. 00:35:09.230 --> 00:35:10.400 align:middle line:90% So yeah, OK. 00:35:10.400 --> 00:35:12.680 align:middle line:84% So this way of classifying sounds 00:35:12.680 --> 00:35:14.150 align:middle line:90% leads us to wonder about gaps. 00:35:14.150 --> 00:35:14.660 align:middle line:90% Yes. 00:35:14.660 --> 00:35:15.320 align:middle line:90% Thanks, Norman. 00:35:15.320 --> 00:35:16.528 align:middle line:90% Yeah, you set that up nicely. 00:35:16.528 --> 00:35:19.640 align:middle line:90% 00:35:19.640 --> 00:35:22.040 align:middle line:84% So let's think about some of these gaps. 00:35:22.040 --> 00:35:26.210 align:middle line:84% So English, for example, has bilabial stops, "p" and "b." 00:35:26.210 --> 00:35:28.940 align:middle line:84% And it has a bilabial nasal, an "m." 00:35:28.940 --> 00:35:32.430 align:middle line:84% But it doesn't have a bilabial fricative. 00:35:32.430 --> 00:35:35.655 align:middle line:84% What would a labial fricative sound like? 00:35:35.655 --> 00:35:39.985 align:middle line:84% Fh, fh, which sounds like blowing out a candle, right? 00:35:39.985 --> 00:35:42.110 align:middle line:84% Open your lips just enough to let some air come out 00:35:42.110 --> 00:35:43.092 align:middle line:90% and then blow. 00:35:43.092 --> 00:35:43.800 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: [TRILLS] 00:35:43.800 --> 00:35:45.410 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Ah, that's a bilabial trill. 00:35:45.410 --> 00:35:46.310 align:middle line:90% We will get to that. 00:35:46.310 --> 00:35:50.190 align:middle line:84% [LAUGHS] Either that or you were just having fun. 00:35:50.190 --> 00:35:51.890 align:middle line:90% I'm not sure. 00:35:51.890 --> 00:35:54.700 align:middle line:84% There are languages that have that. 00:35:54.700 --> 00:35:55.200 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:35:55.200 --> 00:35:57.020 align:middle line:84% So bilabial fricative-- English doesn't 00:35:57.020 --> 00:35:58.220 align:middle line:90% have a bilabial fricative. 00:35:58.220 --> 00:35:59.870 align:middle line:90% But there are languages that do. 00:35:59.870 --> 00:36:01.350 align:middle line:90% Japanese does, for example. 00:36:01.350 --> 00:36:05.000 align:middle line:84% So in Japanese, when people were writing Japanese in the Roman 00:36:05.000 --> 00:36:07.880 align:middle line:84% alphabet, when they write an "f," like when 00:36:07.880 --> 00:36:10.272 align:middle line:84% they write the name of this mountain, 00:36:10.272 --> 00:36:11.480 align:middle line:90% they'll write it with an "f." 00:36:11.480 --> 00:36:13.280 align:middle line:84% But in Japanese, that's not an "f." 00:36:13.280 --> 00:36:14.450 align:middle line:90% It's a bilabial fricative. 00:36:14.450 --> 00:36:16.250 align:middle line:90% It's "Fhuji," "Fhuji." 00:36:16.250 --> 00:36:18.200 align:middle line:84% If you learn Japanese, you must learn 00:36:18.200 --> 00:36:23.210 align:middle line:84% to pronounce the "f" bilabially rather than labiodentally. 00:36:23.210 --> 00:36:27.320 align:middle line:84% So in English, we have a labiodental "f" with our lower 00:36:27.320 --> 00:36:28.820 align:middle line:90% lip against our teeth. 00:36:28.820 --> 00:36:31.400 align:middle line:84% In Japanese "f," your teeth are not involved. 00:36:31.400 --> 00:36:32.972 align:middle line:90% It is only your lips, yeah? 00:36:32.972 --> 00:36:35.710 align:middle line:90% 00:36:35.710 --> 00:36:36.580 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:36:36.580 --> 00:36:39.610 align:middle line:84% What would a buh bilabial fricative sound like? 00:36:39.610 --> 00:36:41.920 align:middle line:84% Is this a voiced or a voiceless bilabial fricative? 00:36:41.920 --> 00:36:42.712 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Voiceless. 00:36:42.712 --> 00:36:43.837 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Voiceless. 00:36:43.837 --> 00:36:44.350 align:middle line:90% Fh, fh. 00:36:44.350 --> 00:36:46.850 align:middle line:84% What would it sound like if it were voiced? 00:36:46.850 --> 00:36:48.610 align:middle line:90% Vh, vh. 00:36:48.610 --> 00:36:50.128 align:middle line:90% And that exists, too. 00:36:50.128 --> 00:36:51.920 align:middle line:84% There are dialects of Spanish, for example, 00:36:51.920 --> 00:36:54.490 align:middle line:84% that have that between vowels, if you 00:36:54.490 --> 00:36:59.650 align:middle line:84% have the letter B between vowels in words like "abuela." 00:36:59.650 --> 00:37:02.840 align:middle line:90% That "b" has that sound-- 00:37:02.840 --> 00:37:06.360 align:middle line:90% a voiced bilabial fricative. 00:37:06.360 --> 00:37:09.480 align:middle line:84% Moving across the chart, I've got a nasal stop there. 00:37:09.480 --> 00:37:13.450 align:middle line:84% Is that nasal voiced or voiceless? 00:37:13.450 --> 00:37:13.960 align:middle line:90% Voiced. 00:37:13.960 --> 00:37:15.550 align:middle line:90% "m." 00:37:15.550 --> 00:37:18.910 align:middle line:84% What would it sound like if it were voiceless? 00:37:18.910 --> 00:37:21.920 align:middle line:90% I should step back. 00:37:21.920 --> 00:37:23.720 align:middle line:90% [EXHALES SHARPLY] 00:37:23.720 --> 00:37:25.070 align:middle line:90% Yeah, English doesn't have that. 00:37:25.070 --> 00:37:28.760 align:middle line:84% [EXHALES SHARPLY] But there are languages out there that do, 00:37:28.760 --> 00:37:31.830 align:middle line:84% languages like Hmong, for example, 00:37:31.830 --> 00:37:33.983 align:middle line:84% which is a minority language spoken in-- 00:37:33.983 --> 00:37:35.900 align:middle line:84% actually, it's quite a large minority language 00:37:35.900 --> 00:37:38.260 align:middle line:90% spoken in Vietnam. 00:37:38.260 --> 00:37:42.230 align:middle line:90% Hmong has that kind of sound. 00:37:42.230 --> 00:37:45.850 align:middle line:84% Tibetan has that kind of sound, too. 00:37:45.850 --> 00:37:46.930 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:37:46.930 --> 00:37:49.960 align:middle line:90% Let's skip palatal and do velar. 00:37:49.960 --> 00:37:52.480 align:middle line:84% We've got velar stops in English-- "k" and "g," 00:37:52.480 --> 00:37:53.590 align:middle line:90% kuh and guh. 00:37:53.590 --> 00:37:56.110 align:middle line:84% And we've got velar nasals, nnnn. 00:37:56.110 --> 00:38:00.190 align:middle line:84% What would a velar fricative sound like? 00:38:00.190 --> 00:38:01.460 align:middle line:90% Kh-- yes? 00:38:01.460 --> 00:38:03.638 align:middle line:84% She's alerting me that she's not just hissing at me. 00:38:03.638 --> 00:38:04.930 align:middle line:90% She's making a velar fricative. 00:38:04.930 --> 00:38:05.430 align:middle line:90% Yes. 00:38:05.430 --> 00:38:08.590 align:middle line:90% Kh, kh, right? 00:38:08.590 --> 00:38:10.648 align:middle line:84% Is that a voiced or a voiceless velar fricative? 00:38:10.648 --> 00:38:11.440 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Voiceless. 00:38:11.440 --> 00:38:12.300 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Voiceless, yeah? 00:38:12.300 --> 00:38:13.200 align:middle line:90% Kh. 00:38:13.200 --> 00:38:13.870 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:38:13.870 --> 00:38:15.430 align:middle line:90% English doesn't have that. 00:38:15.430 --> 00:38:17.350 align:middle line:84% But there are languages that do-- 00:38:17.350 --> 00:38:18.550 align:middle line:90% languages like German, say. 00:38:18.550 --> 00:38:21.008 align:middle line:84% That's one of the sounds that they write with the letters C 00:38:21.008 --> 00:38:25.300 align:middle line:84% and H at the end of composers' names, like Bach, right? 00:38:25.300 --> 00:38:27.340 align:middle line:90% Johann Sebastian Bach. 00:38:27.340 --> 00:38:29.710 align:middle line:84% His name ends with a velar fricative. 00:38:29.710 --> 00:38:32.500 align:middle line:90% Russian has this sound, yeah? 00:38:32.500 --> 00:38:36.580 align:middle line:84% It shows up in the names of authors like Chekhov, 00:38:36.580 --> 00:38:39.380 align:middle line:90% that kh sound. 00:38:39.380 --> 00:38:42.145 align:middle line:84% What would a velar fricative sound like if it were voiced? 00:38:42.145 --> 00:38:44.990 align:middle line:90% 00:38:44.990 --> 00:38:46.990 align:middle line:90% Lhg. 00:38:46.990 --> 00:38:47.990 align:middle line:90% Lhg. 00:38:47.990 --> 00:38:50.240 align:middle line:84% And English doesn't have that, either. 00:38:50.240 --> 00:38:51.860 align:middle line:90% But there are languages that do. 00:38:51.860 --> 00:38:53.360 align:middle line:84% Again, there are dialects of Spanish 00:38:53.360 --> 00:38:55.160 align:middle line:84% where if you have a "g" between vowels, 00:38:55.160 --> 00:39:00.110 align:middle line:84% it'll get this kind of sound, in words like "agua," yeah? 00:39:00.110 --> 00:39:01.780 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:39:01.780 --> 00:39:04.630 align:middle line:84% So we've talked about various kinds of nasal stops. 00:39:04.630 --> 00:39:10.570 align:middle line:84% So an "m' is a bilabial nasal, where you close the flow of air 00:39:10.570 --> 00:39:13.300 align:middle line:84% at your lips and allow the air to flow 00:39:13.300 --> 00:39:15.620 align:middle line:84% through your nasal cavity by lowering your velum. 00:39:15.620 --> 00:39:17.290 align:middle line:90% So you get mmmmm. 00:39:17.290 --> 00:39:19.360 align:middle line:84% Or you can stop the flow of air in other places. 00:39:19.360 --> 00:39:21.580 align:middle line:84% You can have an alveolar nasal, right? "n." 00:39:21.580 --> 00:39:23.770 align:middle line:84% You can have a velar nasal-- "ng." 00:39:23.770 --> 00:39:25.780 align:middle line:84% What would a glottal nasal sound like? 00:39:25.780 --> 00:39:30.640 align:middle line:90% 00:39:30.640 --> 00:39:31.330 align:middle line:90% Trick question. 00:39:31.330 --> 00:39:32.560 align:middle line:90% You would need surgery. 00:39:32.560 --> 00:39:33.910 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:39:33.910 --> 00:39:39.580 align:middle line:84% So the way nasal stops work is you're stopping the flow of air 00:39:39.580 --> 00:39:41.320 align:middle line:90% somewhere in your vocal tract. 00:39:41.320 --> 00:39:44.480 align:middle line:84% But you're allowing the air to flow through your nasal cavity, 00:39:44.480 --> 00:39:44.980 align:middle line:90% right? 00:39:44.980 --> 00:39:46.840 align:middle line:90% That's what a nasal stop is. 00:39:46.840 --> 00:39:50.170 align:middle line:84% Here, let's get back to one of these sagittal sections. 00:39:50.170 --> 00:39:53.500 align:middle line:90% So that "n" there-- 00:39:53.500 --> 00:39:55.840 align:middle line:84% what you're doing is you're stopping the flow of air 00:39:55.840 --> 00:39:57.473 align:middle line:84% there at the alveolar ridge, right? 00:39:57.473 --> 00:39:59.890 align:middle line:84% But you're lowering the velum to let the air flow through. 00:39:59.890 --> 00:40:03.280 align:middle line:84% Or an "m"-- you'd be closing the flow of air at your lips 00:40:03.280 --> 00:40:05.500 align:middle line:84% and lowering your velum to let the air flow through. 00:40:05.500 --> 00:40:09.580 align:middle line:84% Or velar nasal, "ng," like at the end of "king," 00:40:09.580 --> 00:40:11.362 align:middle line:84% you're making a closure at the velum. 00:40:11.362 --> 00:40:12.820 align:middle line:84% But you're also lowering the volume 00:40:12.820 --> 00:40:14.500 align:middle line:84% and letting the air flow through. 00:40:14.500 --> 00:40:18.190 align:middle line:84% A glottal nasal-- you'd have to stop the flow of air 00:40:18.190 --> 00:40:24.220 align:middle line:84% down there at the vocal folds and let the air 00:40:24.220 --> 00:40:26.128 align:middle line:90% go through your velum. 00:40:26.128 --> 00:40:27.670 align:middle line:84% But if you're stopping it down there, 00:40:27.670 --> 00:40:29.900 align:middle line:84% it can't be going through your velum. 00:40:29.900 --> 00:40:32.710 align:middle line:84% So you would need, again, as I say, probably there 00:40:32.710 --> 00:40:35.257 align:middle line:84% are unethical surgeons who would modify you so that you 00:40:35.257 --> 00:40:36.340 align:middle line:90% could make glottal nasals. 00:40:36.340 --> 00:40:38.500 align:middle line:84% You'd need extra ways to get air to flow 00:40:38.500 --> 00:40:40.120 align:middle line:90% through your nasal cavity. 00:40:40.120 --> 00:40:43.340 align:middle line:84% I'm not recommending this, by the way. 00:40:43.340 --> 00:40:45.040 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:40:45.040 --> 00:40:47.840 align:middle line:90% All right. 00:40:47.840 --> 00:40:48.340 align:middle line:90% Cool. 00:40:48.340 --> 00:40:50.940 align:middle line:90% 00:40:50.940 --> 00:40:53.850 align:middle line:90% So those are some of the gaps. 00:40:53.850 --> 00:40:56.790 align:middle line:84% Oh, and I flagged a gap that I didn't talk about. 00:40:56.790 --> 00:40:58.830 align:middle line:90% Sorry, a couple of gaps. 00:40:58.830 --> 00:41:03.390 align:middle line:84% So English has interdental fricatives-- thuh and thuh. 00:41:03.390 --> 00:41:05.880 align:middle line:84% And as I said, those are cross linguistically rare, 00:41:05.880 --> 00:41:10.830 align:middle line:84% which is why if you're trying to do an accent from various kinds 00:41:10.830 --> 00:41:12.880 align:middle line:84% of places, for example, in Europe, 00:41:12.880 --> 00:41:15.510 align:middle line:84% one of the things you do is replace your th sounds 00:41:15.510 --> 00:41:16.810 align:middle line:90% with other kinds of sounds. 00:41:16.810 --> 00:41:19.740 align:middle line:84% So if you're doing a French accent, you replace your "th" 00:41:19.740 --> 00:41:22.350 align:middle line:90% sounds with "z"s, right? 00:41:22.350 --> 00:41:24.750 align:middle line:84% Or if you're doing a German accent, you replace your "th" 00:41:24.750 --> 00:41:26.970 align:middle line:90% sounds with "t"s, yeah? 00:41:26.970 --> 00:41:29.430 align:middle line:84% English has interdental fricatives. 00:41:29.430 --> 00:41:33.205 align:middle line:84% And it has alveolar stops, "t" and "d." 00:41:33.205 --> 00:41:34.830 align:middle line:84% There are languages out there that have 00:41:34.830 --> 00:41:38.500 align:middle line:90% what are called dental stops. 00:41:38.500 --> 00:41:40.680 align:middle line:84% So the alveolar stop, again, involves your tongue 00:41:40.680 --> 00:41:43.440 align:middle line:84% touching the alveolar ridge and stopping the flow of air there. 00:41:43.440 --> 00:41:46.450 align:middle line:84% For a dental stop, your tongue is touching your teeth. 00:41:46.450 --> 00:41:48.360 align:middle line:84% So you're not saying [NON-ENGLISH],, 00:41:48.360 --> 00:41:52.222 align:middle line:90% you're saying [NON-ENGLISH]. 00:41:52.222 --> 00:41:53.890 align:middle line:90% English does not have those. 00:41:53.890 --> 00:41:56.070 align:middle line:84% But there are languages out there that do. 00:41:56.070 --> 00:41:58.153 align:middle line:84% If you're studying another language, 00:41:58.153 --> 00:41:59.820 align:middle line:84% this is the kind of thing to think about 00:41:59.820 --> 00:42:01.487 align:middle line:84% because sometimes, your teacher will not 00:42:01.487 --> 00:42:02.820 align:middle line:90% be thinking about this. 00:42:02.820 --> 00:42:05.520 align:middle line:84% But you should be asking yourself, is this sound, 00:42:05.520 --> 00:42:07.470 align:middle line:84% the sound that sounds like a "t"-- 00:42:07.470 --> 00:42:10.410 align:middle line:84% is it an alveolar "t' or is it a dental "t'? 00:42:10.410 --> 00:42:13.030 align:middle line:84% Part of your job, if you're learning Tagalog, for example, 00:42:13.030 --> 00:42:15.750 align:middle line:84% is to learn to make dental "t"s instead of alveolar "t" 00:42:15.750 --> 00:42:17.920 align:middle line:90% because that's what they've got. 00:42:17.920 --> 00:42:20.280 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:42:20.280 --> 00:42:23.520 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: If you're thinking about linguistic "t," 00:42:23.520 --> 00:42:25.650 align:middle line:90% but let's say someone doesn't-- 00:42:25.650 --> 00:42:27.090 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Have teeth? 00:42:27.090 --> 00:42:27.630 align:middle line:90% Yes. 00:42:27.630 --> 00:42:29.932 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:42:29.932 --> 00:42:31.140 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: How would that work? 00:42:31.140 --> 00:42:32.100 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Well-- 00:42:32.100 --> 00:42:34.125 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Would it be a [INAUDIBLE]?? 00:42:34.125 --> 00:42:37.590 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: [LAUGHS] I believe that is what people do, 00:42:37.590 --> 00:42:38.130 align:middle line:90% yeah. 00:42:38.130 --> 00:42:40.900 align:middle line:90% So you make a closure. 00:42:40.900 --> 00:42:42.900 align:middle line:84% We can talk about interdental fricatives, right? 00:42:42.900 --> 00:42:46.680 align:middle line:84% So somebody who doesn't have teeth and wants to do a thuh-- 00:42:46.680 --> 00:42:47.400 align:middle line:90% what do they do? 00:42:47.400 --> 00:42:51.480 align:middle line:84% I think their job is to create a turbulent airflow 00:42:51.480 --> 00:42:54.300 align:middle line:84% with their tongue between where their teeth would be 00:42:54.300 --> 00:42:56.868 align:middle line:90% if they only had teeth, right? 00:42:56.868 --> 00:42:58.410 align:middle line:84% And I think there's something similar 00:42:58.410 --> 00:42:59.688 align:middle line:90% going on with dental stops. 00:42:59.688 --> 00:43:01.230 align:middle line:84% But this is exactly the kind of thing 00:43:01.230 --> 00:43:03.090 align:middle line:84% that experimental phoneticists do 00:43:03.090 --> 00:43:05.160 align:middle line:84% is to try to figure out one of the things-- 00:43:05.160 --> 00:43:06.570 align:middle line:84% they do many things, some of them 00:43:06.570 --> 00:43:08.040 align:middle line:84% creepy, to try to figure out what's 00:43:08.040 --> 00:43:12.360 align:middle line:84% going on in your vocal tract exactly as you do this stuff. 00:43:12.360 --> 00:43:15.060 align:middle line:84% There's all this work on what people 00:43:15.060 --> 00:43:17.910 align:middle line:84% do to compensate for various kinds of obstructions 00:43:17.910 --> 00:43:18.730 align:middle line:90% in the vocal tract. 00:43:18.730 --> 00:43:20.490 align:middle line:84% So you have people bite on a block. 00:43:20.490 --> 00:43:22.898 align:middle line:84% And you put something solid in their mouth. 00:43:22.898 --> 00:43:23.940 align:middle line:90% And then you're like, OK. 00:43:23.940 --> 00:43:26.520 align:middle line:84% So now what will you do with your tongue 00:43:26.520 --> 00:43:29.520 align:middle line:84% to make the sounds as best you can? 00:43:29.520 --> 00:43:31.770 align:middle line:84% All kinds of weird stuff people do. 00:43:31.770 --> 00:43:33.000 align:middle line:90% Cool stuff. 00:43:33.000 --> 00:43:34.750 align:middle line:90% Yep. 00:43:34.750 --> 00:43:37.357 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:43:37.357 --> 00:43:38.440 align:middle line:90% Where was I with all that? 00:43:38.440 --> 00:43:39.010 align:middle line:90% OK, yeah. 00:43:39.010 --> 00:43:43.490 align:middle line:84% So yeah, that's another set of IPA symbols. 00:43:43.490 --> 00:43:45.100 align:middle line:84% These are your first IPA diacritics, 00:43:45.100 --> 00:43:47.530 align:middle line:84% I guess, those little square doohickeys under the "t" 00:43:47.530 --> 00:43:48.580 align:middle line:90% and the "d" there. 00:43:48.580 --> 00:43:51.055 align:middle line:84% Those indicate that that particular "t" and "d" those 00:43:51.055 --> 00:43:52.780 align:middle line:90% are dental. 00:43:52.780 --> 00:43:55.810 align:middle line:84% There are even languages out there that have both dental 00:43:55.810 --> 00:43:57.730 align:middle line:90% "t"s and alveolar "t's. 00:43:57.730 --> 00:44:00.730 align:middle line:84% So the Dravidian languages of India 00:44:00.730 --> 00:44:02.200 align:middle line:90% are famous for having those. 00:44:02.200 --> 00:44:06.010 align:middle line:84% And a lot of the Aboriginal languages of Australia 00:44:06.010 --> 00:44:09.393 align:middle line:84% are really rich in places of articulation. 00:44:09.393 --> 00:44:10.810 align:middle line:84% So is Dinka, come to think of it-- 00:44:10.810 --> 00:44:13.180 align:middle line:84% this Nilotic language that I mentioned briefly 00:44:13.180 --> 00:44:17.132 align:middle line:84% that has tone as a way of marking case. 00:44:17.132 --> 00:44:19.090 align:middle line:84% These are all languages that have lots and lots 00:44:19.090 --> 00:44:20.650 align:middle line:84% of places of articulation, including 00:44:20.650 --> 00:44:23.890 align:middle line:84% both dental and alveolar, but that often 00:44:23.890 --> 00:44:26.170 align:middle line:84% don't make the languages of Australia-- at least, 00:44:26.170 --> 00:44:28.633 align:middle line:84% often don't make voicing distinctions. 00:44:28.633 --> 00:44:30.550 align:middle line:84% So they have stops, but they don't distinguish 00:44:30.550 --> 00:44:32.210 align:middle line:90% voiced from voiceless. 00:44:32.210 --> 00:44:36.550 align:middle line:84% So they have places of articulation and lots of them, 00:44:36.550 --> 00:44:39.220 align:middle line:84% and nasals in all those places as well, but no distinction 00:44:39.220 --> 00:44:41.460 align:middle line:90% between voiced and voiceless. 00:44:41.460 --> 00:44:42.860 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:44:42.860 --> 00:44:44.630 align:middle line:84% OK, any other questions about this 00:44:44.630 --> 00:44:48.740 align:middle line:90% chart before we zoom past it? 00:44:48.740 --> 00:44:50.840 align:middle line:84% Like I say, on the website, there 00:44:50.840 --> 00:44:55.910 align:middle line:84% will be a link to charts that will look, hopefully, 00:44:55.910 --> 00:44:59.630 align:middle line:84% like this, more official charts by the IPA, 00:44:59.630 --> 00:45:03.860 align:middle line:84% which will have sound files so that you can listen to trained 00:45:03.860 --> 00:45:05.450 align:middle line:90% phonologists making the sounds. 00:45:05.450 --> 00:45:08.840 align:middle line:84% And also, at least one website, which I hope is still up, 00:45:08.840 --> 00:45:12.230 align:middle line:84% has MRIs so that you can watch the inside of a person's 00:45:12.230 --> 00:45:16.210 align:middle line:84% vocal tract as they make the sound. 00:45:16.210 --> 00:45:18.570 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:45:18.570 --> 00:45:22.680 align:middle line:84% Now we have been talking about parts of the vocal tract 00:45:22.680 --> 00:45:24.435 align:middle line:90% that English uses. 00:45:24.435 --> 00:45:26.560 align:middle line:84% Sometimes, it doesn't use them for the same things. 00:45:26.560 --> 00:45:27.360 align:middle line:90% Other languages do. 00:45:27.360 --> 00:45:28.180 align:middle line:90% So we have teeth. 00:45:28.180 --> 00:45:29.640 align:middle line:84% We use our teeth for interdentals, 00:45:29.640 --> 00:45:31.800 align:middle line:90% but we don't make dental stops. 00:45:31.800 --> 00:45:34.920 align:middle line:84% But there are places in the vocal tract that English just 00:45:34.920 --> 00:45:35.670 align:middle line:90% does not use. 00:45:35.670 --> 00:45:37.890 align:middle line:90% And yet other languages do. 00:45:37.890 --> 00:45:39.180 align:middle line:90% Here are a couple. 00:45:39.180 --> 00:45:41.380 align:middle line:84% There are what are called retroflex sounds. 00:45:41.380 --> 00:45:43.380 align:middle line:84% These are sounds in which the tip of your tongue 00:45:43.380 --> 00:45:44.650 align:middle line:90% is on your palate. 00:45:44.650 --> 00:45:48.180 align:middle line:84% So instead of a tuh, you're making a cuh-- 00:45:48.180 --> 00:45:49.960 align:middle line:90% [NON-ENGLISH]. 00:45:49.960 --> 00:45:51.990 align:middle line:84% So your tongue is curled back a little bit 00:45:51.990 --> 00:45:53.820 align:middle line:84% further than it would be for a "t" 00:45:53.820 --> 00:45:56.490 align:middle line:84% And it's making a closure, if you're making a stop, 00:45:56.490 --> 00:45:57.280 align:middle line:90% right there. 00:45:57.280 --> 00:45:58.798 align:middle line:90% So you can make stops there-- 00:45:58.798 --> 00:46:00.090 align:middle line:90% [NON-ENGLISH] or [NON-ENGLISH]. 00:46:00.090 --> 00:46:02.370 align:middle line:84% You can make fricatives there, like [NON-ENGLISH] 00:46:02.370 --> 00:46:04.380 align:middle line:90% or [NON-ENGLISH]. 00:46:04.380 --> 00:46:09.150 align:middle line:84% And you can make nasals there, like are [NON-ENGLISH],, yeah? 00:46:09.150 --> 00:46:11.550 align:middle line:84% Retroflex sounds are very popular in India, 00:46:11.550 --> 00:46:16.500 align:middle line:90% and Australia, and Indonesia. 00:46:16.500 --> 00:46:17.640 align:middle line:90% They're all over the place. 00:46:17.640 --> 00:46:18.940 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:46:18.940 --> 00:46:22.770 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Um, can there be-- there's a retroflex lateral, 00:46:22.770 --> 00:46:23.776 align:middle line:90% too, right? 00:46:23.776 --> 00:46:26.310 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: [NON-ENGLISH] Yeah, mm-hmm. 00:46:26.310 --> 00:46:26.898 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:46:26.898 --> 00:46:28.440 align:middle line:84% Well, we'll get to laterals, but yes. 00:46:28.440 --> 00:46:29.500 align:middle line:90% Yes, there is. 00:46:29.500 --> 00:46:30.680 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:46:30.680 --> 00:46:32.964 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:46:32.964 --> 00:46:35.100 align:middle line:90% OK, those are retroflexes. 00:46:35.100 --> 00:46:40.060 align:middle line:84% Uvulars are kind of like "k" except more so. 00:46:40.060 --> 00:46:42.490 align:middle line:84% So for "k," your back of your tongue 00:46:42.490 --> 00:46:45.108 align:middle line:84% is hitting the back of your mouth. 00:46:45.108 --> 00:46:46.150 align:middle line:90% It's touching your velum. 00:46:46.150 --> 00:46:47.230 align:middle line:90% That's a "k" sound-- 00:46:47.230 --> 00:46:48.190 align:middle line:90% [NON-ENGLISH]. 00:46:48.190 --> 00:46:50.290 align:middle line:84% For a uvular, your tongue goes further back. 00:46:50.290 --> 00:46:52.413 align:middle line:84% And it gets at or near your uvula, 00:46:52.413 --> 00:46:53.830 align:middle line:84% which is the little doohickey that 00:46:53.830 --> 00:46:57.070 align:middle line:90% hangs down there at the back. 00:46:57.070 --> 00:46:58.040 align:middle line:90% That's your uvula. 00:46:58.040 --> 00:47:02.260 align:middle line:84% So this is a sound like [NON-ENGLISH],, 00:47:02.260 --> 00:47:06.340 align:middle line:84% or [NON-ENGLISH],, or [NON-ENGLISH],, 00:47:06.340 --> 00:47:09.100 align:middle line:84% or [NON-ENGLISH],, or [NON-ENGLISH].. 00:47:09.100 --> 00:47:12.673 align:middle line:90% These are all uvular sounds. 00:47:12.673 --> 00:47:14.590 align:middle line:84% We do not have these in English, at least when 00:47:14.590 --> 00:47:15.382 align:middle line:90% we're feeling well. 00:47:15.382 --> 00:47:18.130 align:middle line:84% But there are languages out there the do. 00:47:18.130 --> 00:47:23.170 align:middle line:84% You're working on a problem set that 00:47:23.170 --> 00:47:25.360 align:middle line:90% involves the language Inupiaq. 00:47:25.360 --> 00:47:29.080 align:middle line:84% And that letter "k" is a symbol for a uvular stop. 00:47:29.080 --> 00:47:31.060 align:middle line:90% Inupiaq has a uvular stop. 00:47:31.060 --> 00:47:32.650 align:middle line:84% It has one at the end of the name. 00:47:32.650 --> 00:47:34.330 align:middle line:84% The Inu at the beginning means people. 00:47:34.330 --> 00:47:38.320 align:middle line:84% And piaq is a suffix meaning something like real, or normal, 00:47:38.320 --> 00:47:39.310 align:middle line:90% or regular, right? 00:47:39.310 --> 00:47:41.560 align:middle line:84% So the Inupiaq are the normal people. 00:47:41.560 --> 00:47:43.300 align:middle line:84% The rest of us are abnormal, yeah. 00:47:43.300 --> 00:47:46.490 align:middle line:90% 00:47:46.490 --> 00:47:46.990 align:middle line:90% So yeah. 00:47:46.990 --> 00:47:51.880 align:middle line:90% Uvulars-- reasonably popular. 00:47:51.880 --> 00:47:52.480 align:middle line:90% Let's see. 00:47:52.480 --> 00:47:56.380 align:middle line:84% They're all over the Indigenous languages of the Americas. 00:47:56.380 --> 00:47:57.625 align:middle line:90% They have them in Arabic. 00:47:57.625 --> 00:48:00.220 align:middle line:90% 00:48:00.220 --> 00:48:02.860 align:middle line:90% Yeah, they're not exactly rare. 00:48:02.860 --> 00:48:05.230 align:middle line:90% But English does not have them. 00:48:05.230 --> 00:48:09.200 align:middle line:90% The uvular voiced fricative-- 00:48:09.200 --> 00:48:15.100 align:middle line:84% so the voiceless fricative, the "kh," "kh," is found, 00:48:15.100 --> 00:48:17.710 align:middle line:84% but not usually common in Europe. 00:48:17.710 --> 00:48:22.720 align:middle line:84% The "gh" "gh"-- the voiced uvular fricative-- 00:48:22.720 --> 00:48:26.080 align:middle line:84% is one of the ways to pronounce an "r" 00:48:26.080 --> 00:48:28.360 align:middle line:84% in languages like French and German, right? 00:48:28.360 --> 00:48:31.330 align:middle line:84% So if you're pronouncing the French word for "red," 00:48:31.330 --> 00:48:33.370 align:middle line:84% one of the ways to do it is with this fricative, 00:48:33.370 --> 00:48:34.800 align:middle line:90% to say "rouge"-- 00:48:34.800 --> 00:48:35.300 align:middle line:90% "rgh". 00:48:35.300 --> 00:48:39.875 align:middle line:84% That "rgh" sound is a voiced uvular fricative. 00:48:39.875 --> 00:48:40.750 align:middle line:90% There are other ways. 00:48:40.750 --> 00:48:42.992 align:middle line:90% You can also do a uvular trill-- 00:48:42.992 --> 00:48:49.400 align:middle line:84% [TRILLS]---- where you get your uvula to flap in the breeze, 00:48:49.400 --> 00:48:52.042 align:middle line:90% but not everybody does that. 00:48:52.042 --> 00:48:52.990 align:middle line:90% Yep. 00:48:52.990 --> 00:48:54.160 align:middle line:90% Questions about that? 00:48:54.160 --> 00:48:55.440 align:middle line:90% Accents? 00:48:55.440 --> 00:48:57.590 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:48:57.590 --> 00:49:02.170 align:middle line:84% And then there are also pharyngeals. 00:49:02.170 --> 00:49:06.820 align:middle line:84% Pharyngeals involve constriction near the pharyngeal wall. 00:49:06.820 --> 00:49:08.577 align:middle line:90% Arabic has these. 00:49:08.577 --> 00:49:09.910 align:middle line:90% The Berber languages have these. 00:49:09.910 --> 00:49:13.607 align:middle line:84% These are like, "ah, hah, ah, hah," or "ah, ah." 00:49:13.607 --> 00:49:15.190 align:middle line:84% You're getting the back of your tongue 00:49:15.190 --> 00:49:17.930 align:middle line:84% to get against the back of your vocal tract. 00:49:17.930 --> 00:49:20.410 align:middle line:90% Does anybody here speak Arabic? 00:49:20.410 --> 00:49:22.410 align:middle line:84% OK, so if you know anyone who speaks Arabic, 00:49:22.410 --> 00:49:23.490 align:middle line:84% get them to speak to you for a while 00:49:23.490 --> 00:49:25.230 align:middle line:84% and you'll get to hear them saying this. 00:49:25.230 --> 00:49:26.688 align:middle line:84% As I say, there will be sound files 00:49:26.688 --> 00:49:30.400 align:middle line:84% where you'll get to hear people making these. 00:49:30.400 --> 00:49:31.650 align:middle line:90% So English doesn't have these. 00:49:31.650 --> 00:49:35.280 align:middle line:90% But there are languages that do. 00:49:35.280 --> 00:49:37.080 align:middle line:90% There are pharyngeal fricatives. 00:49:37.080 --> 00:49:39.250 align:middle line:84% Those are both pharyngeal fricatives. 00:49:39.250 --> 00:49:42.600 align:middle line:84% OK, so slightly larger chart with more symbols on it, 00:49:42.600 --> 00:49:45.100 align:middle line:84% including some of the ones we've talked about-- pharyngeals, 00:49:45.100 --> 00:49:47.920 align:middle line:90% uvulars, retroflexes. 00:49:47.920 --> 00:49:50.140 align:middle line:84% And for some reason, the dental stops are still red. 00:49:50.140 --> 00:49:51.260 align:middle line:90% I don't know why. 00:49:51.260 --> 00:49:52.560 align:middle line:90% Have to fix that. 00:49:52.560 --> 00:49:53.580 align:middle line:90% Yep. 00:49:53.580 --> 00:49:56.140 align:middle line:90% This chart. 00:49:56.140 --> 00:49:58.960 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:49:58.960 --> 00:49:59.460 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:49:59.460 --> 00:50:02.513 align:middle line:84% Now people keep asking me about sounds 00:50:02.513 --> 00:50:03.930 align:middle line:84% that I've been carefully avoiding, 00:50:03.930 --> 00:50:05.970 align:middle line:90% so let's talk about them. 00:50:05.970 --> 00:50:10.750 align:middle line:84% There are what are called approximants. 00:50:10.750 --> 00:50:14.140 align:middle line:84% Approximants are not stops, and they're not fricatives, 00:50:14.140 --> 00:50:15.550 align:middle line:90% and they're not nasals. 00:50:15.550 --> 00:50:19.780 align:middle line:84% They involve your articulators vaguely 00:50:19.780 --> 00:50:24.250 align:middle line:84% gesturing towards each other in some part of your vocal tract, 00:50:24.250 --> 00:50:26.380 align:middle line:90% not enough to make-- 00:50:26.380 --> 00:50:28.660 align:middle line:84% definitely not making contact, and not enough to cause 00:50:28.660 --> 00:50:30.280 align:middle line:90% any turbulence in the airflow. 00:50:30.280 --> 00:50:34.060 align:middle line:84% So if you think about a "w," let's say, 00:50:34.060 --> 00:50:38.328 align:middle line:84% in the middle of a word like "away," that's not a stop. 00:50:38.328 --> 00:50:39.370 align:middle line:90% And it's not a fricative. 00:50:39.370 --> 00:50:40.240 align:middle line:90% And it's not nasal. 00:50:40.240 --> 00:50:41.380 align:middle line:90% It's bilabial. 00:50:41.380 --> 00:50:43.930 align:middle line:84% You can feel your lips engaging as you 00:50:43.930 --> 00:50:45.850 align:middle line:84% make the "w" in the middle of "away." 00:50:45.850 --> 00:50:47.470 align:middle line:90% It's a bilabial sound. 00:50:47.470 --> 00:50:49.810 align:middle line:84% But it's not a bilabial stop or a fricative. 00:50:49.810 --> 00:50:52.970 align:middle line:84% It is a bilabial approximant, yeah? 00:50:52.970 --> 00:50:53.470 align:middle line:90% All right. 00:50:53.470 --> 00:50:57.550 align:middle line:84% So similarly for the "y" sound at the beginning of "year" 00:50:57.550 --> 00:51:03.550 align:middle line:84% or "yard," and the "l" and the "r" at the beginning and end 00:51:03.550 --> 00:51:07.990 align:middle line:84% of, I don't know, "layer" or "rail," yeah? 00:51:07.990 --> 00:51:11.320 align:middle line:84% Those are all approximants, yeah. 00:51:11.320 --> 00:51:16.330 align:middle line:84% They are sometimes divided into glides and liquids. 00:51:16.330 --> 00:51:18.760 align:middle line:84% And I'm hoping that nobody will ask me 00:51:18.760 --> 00:51:21.880 align:middle line:84% how you know whether something is a glide or a liquid. 00:51:21.880 --> 00:51:24.130 align:middle line:84% Are you about to ask me how you know whether something 00:51:24.130 --> 00:51:25.090 align:middle line:90% is a glide or a liquid? 00:51:25.090 --> 00:51:26.630 align:middle line:90% [LAUGHTER] 00:51:26.630 --> 00:51:27.130 align:middle line:90% Go ahead. 00:51:27.130 --> 00:51:27.520 align:middle line:90% Is that what you're-- 00:51:27.520 --> 00:51:28.510 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Well, yeah. 00:51:28.510 --> 00:51:29.552 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yes, OK. 00:51:29.552 --> 00:51:30.400 align:middle line:90% All right, fine. 00:51:30.400 --> 00:51:33.070 align:middle line:90% [LAUGHS] So a glide-- 00:51:33.070 --> 00:51:37.360 align:middle line:84% sometimes, it's as though a glide is an approximant 00:51:37.360 --> 00:51:41.140 align:middle line:84% that if you were to hold it longer, it would be a vowel. 00:51:41.140 --> 00:51:47.470 align:middle line:84% So a "w"-- if you just freeze yourself in "w" space, 00:51:47.470 --> 00:51:49.690 align:middle line:90% you're making an "oo," right? 00:51:49.690 --> 00:51:52.365 align:middle line:90% A "w" is like an "oo" sped up. 00:51:52.365 --> 00:51:53.990 align:middle line:84% We're going to talk about vowels later. 00:51:53.990 --> 00:51:56.500 align:middle line:84% But if you think about what an "oo" is, 00:51:56.500 --> 00:51:59.260 align:middle line:90% it's a held version of a "w." 00:51:59.260 --> 00:52:04.570 align:middle line:84% And similarly, a "y" sound, yuh, is a sped-up version 00:52:04.570 --> 00:52:09.680 align:middle line:84% of an "e" as opposed to an "r" or an "l," which are just 00:52:09.680 --> 00:52:11.950 align:middle line:90% something else. 00:52:11.950 --> 00:52:14.080 align:middle line:84% Because I have not given you a good way 00:52:14.080 --> 00:52:15.760 align:middle line:84% of distinguishing glides from liquids, 00:52:15.760 --> 00:52:17.860 align:middle line:84% you can trust me that I will never 00:52:17.860 --> 00:52:19.737 align:middle line:84% ask you to distinguish them in a way that 00:52:19.737 --> 00:52:22.070 align:middle line:84% will make a difference for grades or anything like that. 00:52:22.070 --> 00:52:23.890 align:middle line:84% You will never see me saying, no, you're wrong. 00:52:23.890 --> 00:52:24.723 align:middle line:90% "That's not a glide. 00:52:24.723 --> 00:52:25.570 align:middle line:90% It's a liquid."-- 00:52:25.570 --> 00:52:26.200 align:middle line:90% I may say that. 00:52:26.200 --> 00:52:30.610 align:middle line:84% But there won't be minus 5 next to it. 00:52:30.610 --> 00:52:32.230 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:52:32.230 --> 00:52:35.200 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: If the "w" and the "y" sounds 00:52:35.200 --> 00:52:37.780 align:middle line:84% are both just shortened vowel sounds, 00:52:37.780 --> 00:52:42.083 align:middle line:84% then why is it necessary to have these as separate symbols? 00:52:42.083 --> 00:52:43.000 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 00:52:43.000 --> 00:52:45.010 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Just like the "ch" having two-- 00:52:45.010 --> 00:52:46.510 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Having two letters. 00:52:46.510 --> 00:52:47.760 align:middle line:90% That's a really good question. 00:52:47.760 --> 00:52:51.200 align:middle line:84% So why don't we just use the letter "u" 00:52:51.200 --> 00:52:54.940 align:middle line:84% for the bilabial glide, for the "w"? 00:52:54.940 --> 00:53:00.102 align:middle line:84% And let me see if I can come up with a good answer to that. 00:53:00.102 --> 00:53:02.560 align:middle line:84% Eventually, we're going to get to-- so far, all we're doing 00:53:02.560 --> 00:53:05.470 align:middle line:84% is talking about sounds individually. 00:53:05.470 --> 00:53:07.360 align:middle line:84% And eventually, we're going to start talking 00:53:07.360 --> 00:53:10.390 align:middle line:90% about sequences of sounds. 00:53:10.390 --> 00:53:14.740 align:middle line:84% And we're going to want to be able to talk about restrictions 00:53:14.740 --> 00:53:18.133 align:middle line:84% on the ways in which sounds get to interact with each other. 00:53:18.133 --> 00:53:20.050 align:middle line:84% And so it's going to be useful, at that point, 00:53:20.050 --> 00:53:22.060 align:middle line:84% to be able to distinguish, for example, 00:53:22.060 --> 00:53:24.760 align:middle line:90% consonants from vowels. 00:53:24.760 --> 00:53:27.168 align:middle line:90% And once we do that-- 00:53:27.168 --> 00:53:28.960 align:middle line:84% and you should feel free to call me on this 00:53:28.960 --> 00:53:30.880 align:middle line:90% if it doesn't come up later. 00:53:30.880 --> 00:53:33.050 align:middle line:90% I'll try to make sure it does. 00:53:33.050 --> 00:53:34.750 align:middle line:84% It'll turn out to be useful to be 00:53:34.750 --> 00:53:38.680 align:middle line:84% able to think of the consonant version of this sound, the "w," 00:53:38.680 --> 00:53:41.620 align:middle line:84% and also the vowel version of this sound, the "u." 00:53:41.620 --> 00:53:44.170 align:middle line:84% But you're right that there are plenty of sound changes 00:53:44.170 --> 00:53:47.172 align:middle line:84% where you see them converting back 00:53:47.172 --> 00:53:48.380 align:middle line:90% and forth between each other. 00:53:48.380 --> 00:53:49.930 align:middle line:84% That's a thing that happens, yeah. 00:53:49.930 --> 00:53:52.570 align:middle line:90% So yeah. 00:53:52.570 --> 00:53:55.090 align:middle line:84% But that's the prima facie reason for distinguishing them 00:53:55.090 --> 00:53:59.860 align:middle line:84% because there are rules for the distribution of sounds 00:53:59.860 --> 00:54:02.260 align:middle line:84% for which it's useful to have that distinction. 00:54:02.260 --> 00:54:03.700 align:middle line:84% It's like anything else, I guess. 00:54:03.700 --> 00:54:06.370 align:middle line:84% We make that distinction as long as it turns out 00:54:06.370 --> 00:54:08.080 align:middle line:84% to be useful for explaining stuff. 00:54:08.080 --> 00:54:09.670 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:54:09.670 --> 00:54:10.955 align:middle line:90% Good question. 00:54:10.955 --> 00:54:11.455 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:54:11.455 --> 00:54:14.520 align:middle line:90% 00:54:14.520 --> 00:54:15.600 align:middle line:90% Good, all right. 00:54:15.600 --> 00:54:18.780 align:middle line:90% 00:54:18.780 --> 00:54:20.400 align:middle line:84% So those are glides and liquids, OK. 00:54:20.400 --> 00:54:24.600 align:middle line:84% And then I recall we were asking about this before. 00:54:24.600 --> 00:54:27.000 align:middle line:90% Sounds like chuh and juh-- 00:54:27.000 --> 00:54:29.250 align:middle line:84% I think I said you could think of chuh 00:54:29.250 --> 00:54:32.740 align:middle line:84% as a stop, a "t" followed by a fricative, 00:54:32.740 --> 00:54:38.130 align:middle line:84% shuh, or juh-- the juh at the beginning 00:54:38.130 --> 00:54:41.820 align:middle line:84% and end of a word like judge as being 00:54:41.820 --> 00:54:46.980 align:middle line:84% a stop, a "d" sound followed by a fricative, a zhuh. 00:54:46.980 --> 00:54:49.897 align:middle line:84% There's a little bit of a debate about whether what I just said 00:54:49.897 --> 00:54:51.730 align:middle line:84% is the right way to think about this or not. 00:54:51.730 --> 00:54:54.040 align:middle line:84% I think the standard way to think about it is not exactly 00:54:54.040 --> 00:54:54.540 align:middle line:90% that. 00:54:54.540 --> 00:54:57.040 align:middle line:84% What people do is say, yeah, there's 00:54:57.040 --> 00:54:59.690 align:middle line:90% this package deal, an affricate. 00:54:59.690 --> 00:55:01.900 align:middle line:84% So there's a name for this kind of thing. 00:55:01.900 --> 00:55:07.180 align:middle line:84% An affricate is this sequence, something like a stop followed 00:55:07.180 --> 00:55:08.260 align:middle line:90% by a fricative. 00:55:08.260 --> 00:55:11.317 align:middle line:84% And the arguments about whether or not 00:55:11.317 --> 00:55:13.150 align:middle line:84% to make this move, about whether to say, no, 00:55:13.150 --> 00:55:16.335 align:middle line:84% that's a single sound with a complex motion as 00:55:16.335 --> 00:55:17.710 align:middle line:84% opposed to saying, no, that's two 00:55:17.710 --> 00:55:19.967 align:middle line:84% sounds right next to each other has 00:55:19.967 --> 00:55:21.550 align:middle line:84% to do with the kinds of considerations 00:55:21.550 --> 00:55:22.540 align:middle line:90% I was just talking about. 00:55:22.540 --> 00:55:23.957 align:middle line:84% When you're trying to figure out-- 00:55:23.957 --> 00:55:25.780 align:middle line:84% what's the best theory of, for example, 00:55:25.780 --> 00:55:28.900 align:middle line:84% what sequences of sounds are allowed in a syllable 00:55:28.900 --> 00:55:30.700 align:middle line:90% in a given language-- 00:55:30.700 --> 00:55:33.700 align:middle line:84% sometimes it's useful to be able to say this is a language that 00:55:33.700 --> 00:55:37.150 align:middle line:84% doesn't ever, ever allow, say, a syllable to end 00:55:37.150 --> 00:55:39.280 align:middle line:84% with a stop followed by a fricative. 00:55:39.280 --> 00:55:41.680 align:middle line:84% Oh, but it's OK for it to end with chuh. 00:55:41.680 --> 00:55:43.960 align:middle line:84% So we'll just treat that as a single package, right? 00:55:43.960 --> 00:55:46.240 align:middle line:84% We won't treat it as a stop followed by a fricative. 00:55:46.240 --> 00:55:50.490 align:middle line:84% That's the move people make, yeah. 00:55:50.490 --> 00:55:53.870 align:middle line:90% So terminology. 00:55:53.870 --> 00:55:54.370 align:middle line:90% OK? 00:55:54.370 --> 00:55:57.630 align:middle line:90% 00:55:57.630 --> 00:55:59.480 align:middle line:90% All right. 00:55:59.480 --> 00:56:02.630 align:middle line:90% So I've made the table whiter. 00:56:02.630 --> 00:56:05.660 align:middle line:84% There are glides like wuh and yuh. 00:56:05.660 --> 00:56:07.970 align:middle line:84% There are some other glides there 00:56:07.970 --> 00:56:09.470 align:middle line:90% which I can try to read to you. 00:56:09.470 --> 00:56:12.290 align:middle line:84% What would a labiodental glide sound like? 00:56:12.290 --> 00:56:16.520 align:middle line:90% 00:56:16.520 --> 00:56:21.240 align:middle line:84% What's a labiodental fricative, a voiced labiodental fricative? 00:56:21.240 --> 00:56:22.140 align:middle line:90% Vuh, right? 00:56:22.140 --> 00:56:23.800 align:middle line:90% Like a "v" sound. 00:56:23.800 --> 00:56:27.180 align:middle line:84% So can you try to make a labiodental glide maybe 00:56:27.180 --> 00:56:28.410 align:middle line:90% between vowels? 00:56:28.410 --> 00:56:30.720 align:middle line:84% It's going to be something like [NON-ENGLISH].. 00:56:30.720 --> 00:56:33.665 align:middle line:90% 00:56:33.665 --> 00:56:34.790 align:middle line:90% English doesn't have those. 00:56:34.790 --> 00:56:36.050 align:middle line:90% I believe Hindi does. 00:56:36.050 --> 00:56:39.050 align:middle line:84% So there are languages out there that have labiodental glides. 00:56:39.050 --> 00:56:43.760 align:middle line:84% Similarly, there are velar glides, [NON-ENGLISH],, 00:56:43.760 --> 00:56:47.210 align:middle line:84% where your tongue is just vaguely gesturing 00:56:47.210 --> 00:56:49.460 align:middle line:84% in the direction of your velum, yeah? 00:56:49.460 --> 00:56:52.010 align:middle line:84% I like the IPA symbol for the velar glide. 00:56:52.010 --> 00:56:55.190 align:middle line:84% It looks like something out of Tolkien. 00:56:55.190 --> 00:56:57.230 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:56:57.230 --> 00:57:00.110 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:57:00.110 --> 00:57:01.370 align:middle line:90% All right. 00:57:01.370 --> 00:57:03.965 align:middle line:90% So we've done consonants. 00:57:03.965 --> 00:57:05.780 align:middle line:84% We have not done all the consonants. 00:57:05.780 --> 00:57:08.162 align:middle line:84% So what I'm going to do is show you some vowels. 00:57:08.162 --> 00:57:09.620 align:middle line:84% And then we'll circle back and look 00:57:09.620 --> 00:57:11.480 align:middle line:84% at some particularly exotic consonants 00:57:11.480 --> 00:57:13.770 align:middle line:84% probably next time, probably not today. 00:57:13.770 --> 00:57:15.860 align:middle line:84% So I want to start talking about vowels. 00:57:15.860 --> 00:57:18.830 align:middle line:84% So let's go through the vowels systematically. 00:57:18.830 --> 00:57:21.830 align:middle line:84% Compare the vowel in the middle of bead 00:57:21.830 --> 00:57:24.180 align:middle line:84% and the vowel in the middle of bad. 00:57:24.180 --> 00:57:29.180 align:middle line:84% And here let me just warn you that the IPA becomes 00:57:29.180 --> 00:57:33.560 align:middle line:84% particularly forbidding when we get to vowels in English. 00:57:33.560 --> 00:57:35.780 align:middle line:84% And it's not the fault of the IPA. 00:57:35.780 --> 00:57:39.470 align:middle line:84% It's the fact that English has a very large number 00:57:39.470 --> 00:57:44.727 align:middle line:84% of vowels and a not-very-good system for writing them. 00:57:44.727 --> 00:57:47.060 align:middle line:84% This is one of the things that makes English spelling so 00:57:47.060 --> 00:57:49.880 align:middle line:84% difficult that we can actually have competitions 00:57:49.880 --> 00:57:51.680 align:middle line:90% where you watch people spell. 00:57:51.680 --> 00:57:55.970 align:middle line:84% This is a thing that in many languages would be impossible. 00:57:55.970 --> 00:57:57.830 align:middle line:84% If you tried to do that in Finnish, 00:57:57.830 --> 00:57:59.870 align:middle line:84% the spelling bee would just never end 00:57:59.870 --> 00:58:03.800 align:middle line:84% because every word is pronounced exactly the way it's spelled. 00:58:03.800 --> 00:58:05.720 align:middle line:90% We don't do that in English. 00:58:05.720 --> 00:58:07.940 align:middle line:90% So here are two vowels. 00:58:07.940 --> 00:58:09.950 align:middle line:90% And those are their IPA symbols. 00:58:09.950 --> 00:58:12.590 align:middle line:84% The vowel in "bead" and the vowel in "bad"-- 00:58:12.590 --> 00:58:17.840 align:middle line:84% and now so everybody joined me in transitioning from one 00:58:17.840 --> 00:58:19.130 align:middle line:90% of those vowels to the other. 00:58:19.130 --> 00:58:29.770 align:middle line:90% Go ee-ah, ee-ah, ee-ah, OK. 00:58:29.770 --> 00:58:31.220 align:middle line:90% [LAUGHTER] 00:58:31.220 --> 00:58:33.320 align:middle line:90% You guys sound good. 00:58:33.320 --> 00:58:35.695 align:middle line:90% What are you doing? 00:58:35.695 --> 00:58:37.070 align:middle line:84% You're doing what I asked you to, 00:58:37.070 --> 00:58:40.160 align:middle line:84% but what's happening in your mouth? 00:58:40.160 --> 00:58:41.203 align:middle line:90% Yes? 00:58:41.203 --> 00:58:42.620 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: The second vowel is open. 00:58:42.620 --> 00:58:44.180 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah, the second level is more open. 00:58:44.180 --> 00:58:46.400 align:middle line:84% You're opening your mouth a little bit more. 00:58:46.400 --> 00:58:49.403 align:middle line:84% What are you doing with your tongue? 00:58:49.403 --> 00:58:51.320 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Releasing from the top of your mouth. 00:58:51.320 --> 00:58:52.490 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah, it's lowering. 00:58:52.490 --> 00:58:53.720 align:middle line:84% It's going from the top to the bottom. 00:58:53.720 --> 00:58:55.303 align:middle line:84% Yeah, I think you guys are both right. 00:58:55.303 --> 00:58:57.898 align:middle line:84% So for "ee," your tongue is tense. 00:58:57.898 --> 00:58:59.690 align:middle line:84% And it's up there at the top of your mouth. 00:58:59.690 --> 00:59:03.267 align:middle line:84% And then for "ah," your tongue drops, right? 00:59:03.267 --> 00:59:05.600 align:middle line:84% And in fact, it drops so far that it drags your jaw down 00:59:05.600 --> 00:59:06.680 align:middle line:90% with it, right? 00:59:06.680 --> 00:59:08.750 align:middle line:84% Maybe there's a more reasonable way to say that. 00:59:08.750 --> 00:59:10.430 align:middle line:84% You lower your jaw so that your tongue 00:59:10.430 --> 00:59:12.410 align:middle line:90% can go even further down. 00:59:12.410 --> 00:59:14.960 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 00:59:14.960 --> 00:59:20.640 align:middle line:84% So one way of classifying vowels is in terms of height. 00:59:20.640 --> 00:59:24.740 align:middle line:84% So we talk about the high vowel, like "heat," and the low vowel, 00:59:24.740 --> 00:59:25.970 align:middle line:90% like "hat." 00:59:25.970 --> 00:59:29.300 align:middle line:84% And there are vowels in-between, like the vowel in "hate." 00:59:29.300 --> 00:59:31.130 align:middle line:90% That vowel is called mid. 00:59:31.130 --> 00:59:33.053 align:middle line:84% So we have high vowels and we have mid vowels. 00:59:33.053 --> 00:59:34.220 align:middle line:90% And then we have low vowels. 00:59:34.220 --> 00:59:39.950 align:middle line:90% 00:59:39.950 --> 00:59:42.470 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 00:59:42.470 --> 00:59:43.070 align:middle line:90% OK. 00:59:43.070 --> 00:59:46.080 align:middle line:90% Now let's do another comparison. 00:59:46.080 --> 00:59:50.150 align:middle line:84% Think about the vowel in "he" and the vowel in "who." 00:59:50.150 --> 00:59:59.900 align:middle line:84% So everybody go ee, ooh, ee, ooh, ee, ooh. 00:59:59.900 --> 01:00:03.050 align:middle line:84% What's going on in your vocal tract as you do that? 01:00:03.050 --> 01:00:09.720 align:middle line:90% 01:00:09.720 --> 01:00:12.424 align:middle line:84% What's the difference between "ee" and "ooh"? 01:00:12.424 --> 01:00:13.320 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Your lips? 01:00:13.320 --> 01:00:13.830 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Your lips. 01:00:13.830 --> 01:00:15.390 align:middle line:84% Your lips are definitely involved. 01:00:15.390 --> 01:00:15.990 align:middle line:90% Yes. 01:00:15.990 --> 01:00:18.990 align:middle line:84% So for "ooh," they're like this, right? 01:00:18.990 --> 01:00:20.760 align:middle line:90% Your lips are rounded. 01:00:20.760 --> 01:00:22.740 align:middle line:84% For the "ooh," that's absolutely right. 01:00:22.740 --> 01:00:23.490 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 01:00:23.490 --> 01:00:25.500 align:middle line:84% And then for "heat," they're not. 01:00:25.500 --> 01:00:26.010 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 01:00:26.010 --> 01:00:28.980 align:middle line:84% In fact, that's why when you take photographs of people, 01:00:28.980 --> 01:00:31.530 align:middle line:84% you have them say something with an "ee" vowel in it, 01:00:31.530 --> 01:00:35.637 align:middle line:84% like "cheese," just to get them to not round their lips. 01:00:35.637 --> 01:00:37.470 align:middle line:84% But you're doing something with your tongue, 01:00:37.470 --> 01:00:43.520 align:middle line:84% too, as you go from "ee" to "ooh," ee, ooh. 01:00:43.520 --> 01:00:46.320 align:middle line:84% What are you doing with your tongue? 01:00:46.320 --> 01:00:46.820 align:middle line:90% Yes? 01:00:46.820 --> 01:00:49.035 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Moving it forward [INAUDIBLE]?? 01:00:49.035 --> 01:00:49.910 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Wow. 01:00:49.910 --> 01:00:53.570 align:middle line:90% So let's start with "ee." 01:00:53.570 --> 01:00:56.150 align:middle line:90% Where is your tongue? 01:00:56.150 --> 01:00:59.980 align:middle line:84% It's in your mouth, but where is it pointing? 01:00:59.980 --> 01:01:01.360 align:middle line:90% It's high, right? 01:01:01.360 --> 01:01:02.770 align:middle line:90% "Ee." 01:01:02.770 --> 01:01:06.360 align:middle line:84% And then for "ooh," where does it go? 01:01:06.360 --> 01:01:11.390 align:middle line:90% 01:01:11.390 --> 01:01:12.970 align:middle line:90% It moves, right? 01:01:12.970 --> 01:01:14.560 align:middle line:84% So you aren't just rounding your lips 01:01:14.560 --> 01:01:15.760 align:middle line:84% and leaving your tongue where it was. 01:01:15.760 --> 01:01:16.450 align:middle line:90% Yes? 01:01:16.450 --> 01:01:18.070 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: I noticed for "ee," my tongue 01:01:18.070 --> 01:01:19.450 align:middle line:90% is also between my molars. 01:01:19.450 --> 01:01:21.136 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 01:01:21.136 --> 01:01:22.077 align:middle line:90% Ah, yeah. 01:01:22.077 --> 01:01:22.910 align:middle line:90% I see what you mean. 01:01:22.910 --> 01:01:24.643 align:middle line:90% Yeah, yeah. 01:01:24.643 --> 01:01:25.810 align:middle line:90% I don't know about you guys. 01:01:25.810 --> 01:01:27.340 align:middle line:90% But for me, for "ee"-- 01:01:27.340 --> 01:01:28.870 align:middle line:90% yeah? 01:01:28.870 --> 01:01:31.930 align:middle line:84% Yeah, for me, for "ee," it's at the front. 01:01:31.930 --> 01:01:32.860 align:middle line:90% And it's high. 01:01:32.860 --> 01:01:37.090 align:middle line:84% And then for "ooh," my tongue curls backward. 01:01:37.090 --> 01:01:38.290 align:middle line:90% And it avoids my molars. 01:01:38.290 --> 01:01:39.722 align:middle line:90% You're absolutely right. 01:01:39.722 --> 01:01:41.680 align:middle line:84% And it curls backwards so that it's hiding back 01:01:41.680 --> 01:01:42.680 align:middle line:90% in the back of my mouth. 01:01:42.680 --> 01:01:44.890 align:middle line:84% I think that's the thing you were saying just now. 01:01:44.890 --> 01:01:45.520 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 01:01:45.520 --> 01:01:47.228 align:middle line:84% Is that the experience people are having? 01:01:47.228 --> 01:01:48.905 align:middle line:84% Everybody do some more ee, ooh, ee, ooh. 01:01:48.905 --> 01:01:50.530 align:middle line:84% Feel your tongue moving back and forth. 01:01:50.530 --> 01:01:51.670 align:middle line:90% Ignore your lips, right? 01:01:51.670 --> 01:01:53.266 align:middle line:90% And think about your tongue. 01:01:53.266 --> 01:01:55.700 align:middle line:90% Yep. 01:01:55.700 --> 01:01:57.056 align:middle line:90% Yep. 01:01:57.056 --> 01:02:03.070 align:middle line:84% OK, so we have high, mid, and low vowels. 01:02:03.070 --> 01:02:06.010 align:middle line:84% But we also have front and back vowels. 01:02:06.010 --> 01:02:08.830 align:middle line:84% So the back vowels are vowels like the vowel in "who" 01:02:08.830 --> 01:02:12.460 align:middle line:84% and the vowel in "hoed," and the vowel in "hot," "ah." 01:02:12.460 --> 01:02:16.120 align:middle line:84% So "ooh" and "oh" and "ah"-- those are all back vowels. 01:02:16.120 --> 01:02:19.710 align:middle line:84% Your tongue is pulling back toward the back of your mouth. 01:02:19.710 --> 01:02:21.290 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 01:02:21.290 --> 01:02:21.790 align:middle line:90% OK. 01:02:21.790 --> 01:02:25.450 align:middle line:84% And then this is the other point that you guys made. 01:02:25.450 --> 01:02:27.080 align:middle line:84% Some of these vowels are rounded. 01:02:27.080 --> 01:02:31.780 align:middle line:84% So in English, the back non-low vowels, 01:02:31.780 --> 01:02:35.530 align:middle line:84% the back high and the back mid vowels, are rounded in who 01:02:35.530 --> 01:02:36.820 align:middle line:90% and hoe. 01:02:36.820 --> 01:02:39.760 align:middle line:84% Your lips have to round to make those vowels. 01:02:39.760 --> 01:02:42.950 align:middle line:84% But for hot, your lips don't round. 01:02:42.950 --> 01:02:44.190 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 01:02:44.190 --> 01:02:46.195 align:middle line:90% And a bunch more symbols. 01:02:46.195 --> 01:02:47.320 align:middle line:90% Some of them aren't so bad. 01:02:47.320 --> 01:02:49.470 align:middle line:84% The letter "u" for "ooh"-- that's pretty good. 01:02:49.470 --> 01:02:51.850 align:middle line:84% And the letter "o" for "oh," yeah. 01:02:51.850 --> 01:02:54.860 align:middle line:84% And then we have that ash symbol there, 01:02:54.860 --> 01:02:58.470 align:middle line:84% which is from Old English for "ah" in "had." 01:02:58.470 --> 01:03:01.670 align:middle line:84% And then "i" and "e" and "a," stuck with those. 01:03:01.670 --> 01:03:02.460 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 01:03:02.460 --> 01:03:05.780 align:middle line:84% We have standard-issue European values 01:03:05.780 --> 01:03:11.020 align:middle line:90% for some of those symptoms, OK? 01:03:11.020 --> 01:03:21.420 align:middle line:84% Now in this chart, I've only got six vowels. 01:03:21.420 --> 01:03:23.170 align:middle line:84% You may have been taught-- how many vowels 01:03:23.170 --> 01:03:27.070 align:middle line:84% were you taught English had if you went to school in English? 01:03:27.070 --> 01:03:27.912 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 01:03:27.912 --> 01:03:28.495 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Five. 01:03:28.495 --> 01:03:28.780 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Five. 01:03:28.780 --> 01:03:30.130 align:middle line:84% It's supposed to have five, right? 01:03:30.130 --> 01:03:31.090 align:middle line:90% It does not have five. 01:03:31.090 --> 01:03:33.490 align:middle line:90% It has 14. 01:03:33.490 --> 01:03:37.615 align:middle line:84% And why are we taught that it only has five? 01:03:37.615 --> 01:03:40.375 align:middle line:84% Why do we only have five letters for vowels? 01:03:40.375 --> 01:03:43.400 align:middle line:90% 01:03:43.400 --> 01:03:46.040 align:middle line:90% Who gave us this alphabet? 01:03:46.040 --> 01:03:47.660 align:middle line:90% The Romans, right? 01:03:47.660 --> 01:03:48.260 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 01:03:48.260 --> 01:03:50.870 align:middle line:84% And in Latin, there in fact are five vowels, which 01:03:50.870 --> 01:03:52.500 align:middle line:90% can be either long or short. 01:03:52.500 --> 01:03:54.980 align:middle line:84% So this is a perfect alphabet for Latin, yeah? 01:03:54.980 --> 01:03:56.970 align:middle line:90% But then we got hold of it. 01:03:56.970 --> 01:04:01.310 align:middle line:84% And so we've ended up with 12, 14 vowels. 01:04:01.310 --> 01:04:03.290 align:middle line:84% Different dialects of English are different. 01:04:03.290 --> 01:04:05.570 align:middle line:84% And we have five letters to spell them with. 01:04:05.570 --> 01:04:08.540 align:middle line:84% And this is why we have spelling bees, yeah-- 01:04:08.540 --> 01:04:09.970 align:middle line:90% one of the reasons. 01:04:09.970 --> 01:04:15.120 align:middle line:84% OK, so I've written six of our five vowels here on this chart. 01:04:15.120 --> 01:04:17.820 align:middle line:90% And then we have more. 01:04:17.820 --> 01:04:22.430 align:middle line:84% So think about "ooh" and "uh," in "who'd" 01:04:22.430 --> 01:04:27.680 align:middle line:84% and "hood," or "ee" and "ih" in "heed" and "hid," 01:04:27.680 --> 01:04:31.220 align:middle line:84% or "ay" and "eh" in "raid" and "red," 01:04:31.220 --> 01:04:36.470 align:middle line:84% or "oh" and "aw" like in "coat" and "caught." 01:04:36.470 --> 01:04:38.960 align:middle line:84% There are various ways of talking about this distinction. 01:04:38.960 --> 01:04:41.065 align:middle line:90% But one way is like this. 01:04:41.065 --> 01:04:42.440 align:middle line:84% We say that there's a distinction 01:04:42.440 --> 01:04:44.090 align:middle line:84% between what are called tense vowels 01:04:44.090 --> 01:04:46.640 align:middle line:90% and what are called lax vowels. 01:04:46.640 --> 01:04:52.760 align:middle line:84% So "ooh" is a high back rounded tense vowel. 01:04:52.760 --> 01:04:56.063 align:middle line:84% And if you go back and forth between "ooh" and "uh," 01:04:56.063 --> 01:05:01.410 align:middle line:84% ooh, uh, ooh, uh, ooh, uh, the idea is basically 01:05:01.410 --> 01:05:03.570 align:middle line:90% what you're doing is relaxing. 01:05:03.570 --> 01:05:07.560 align:middle line:84% So your tongue is not quite as rigidly high and back 01:05:07.560 --> 01:05:10.290 align:middle line:84% as it would be for an "ooh" when it makes an "uh." 01:05:10.290 --> 01:05:13.030 align:middle line:84% And your lips are probably not quite as tensely rounded, 01:05:13.030 --> 01:05:13.530 align:middle line:90% either. 01:05:13.530 --> 01:05:16.560 align:middle line:90% Your whole body relaxes, yeah? 01:05:16.560 --> 01:05:20.010 align:middle line:84% Same deal with all these other pairs. 01:05:20.010 --> 01:05:22.410 align:middle line:84% It's a fact about English lax vowels 01:05:22.410 --> 01:05:25.860 align:middle line:84% that there's a restriction on their distribution. 01:05:25.860 --> 01:05:29.610 align:middle line:84% English monosyllables don't end in lax vowels 01:05:29.610 --> 01:05:30.970 align:middle line:90% that are either front or high. 01:05:30.970 --> 01:05:35.190 align:middle line:84% So we have words like "flee" and "flu" and "flay." 01:05:35.190 --> 01:05:37.620 align:middle line:90% Those are all words in English. 01:05:37.620 --> 01:05:40.990 align:middle line:84% "Flay" means to remove the skin from. 01:05:40.990 --> 01:05:44.310 align:middle line:84% But we don't have those three words at the end there. 01:05:44.310 --> 01:05:48.000 align:middle line:84% I've given them stars to remind us that those are not words 01:05:48.000 --> 01:05:49.590 align:middle line:90% that we could have in English. 01:05:49.590 --> 01:05:53.340 align:middle line:84% Anybody want to attempt to pronounce them? 01:05:53.340 --> 01:05:54.340 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 01:05:54.340 --> 01:05:54.740 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Wait, which ones-- 01:05:54.740 --> 01:05:55.650 align:middle line:90% I was going to ask a question. 01:05:55.650 --> 01:05:56.160 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Oh, sorry. 01:05:56.160 --> 01:05:56.850 align:middle line:84% You were going to ask a question. 01:05:56.850 --> 01:05:57.600 align:middle line:90% Go ahead. 01:05:57.600 --> 01:05:59.070 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: What about schwa? 01:05:59.070 --> 01:06:00.190 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: We haven't gotten to schwa. 01:06:00.190 --> 01:06:00.570 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: OK. 01:06:00.570 --> 01:06:00.780 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah, yeah. 01:06:00.780 --> 01:06:01.500 align:middle line:90% There are more vowels. 01:06:01.500 --> 01:06:02.000 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 01:06:02.000 --> 01:06:05.220 align:middle line:90% 01:06:05.220 --> 01:06:07.960 align:middle line:84% Those last three-- if they were English words, 01:06:07.960 --> 01:06:10.620 align:middle line:84% they would be "flih," "fluh," and "fleh," right? 01:06:10.620 --> 01:06:12.180 align:middle line:84% Well, we don't have words like that. 01:06:12.180 --> 01:06:17.115 align:middle line:84% English doesn't have words that end in "ih," or "uh," or "eh," 01:06:17.115 --> 01:06:20.620 align:middle line:84% with the possible exception of "meh." 01:06:20.620 --> 01:06:23.160 align:middle line:84% So if we don't count that as a word, 01:06:23.160 --> 01:06:24.870 align:middle line:84% then English doesn't have monosyllables 01:06:24.870 --> 01:06:26.663 align:middle line:90% that end in these vowels, yeah. 01:06:26.663 --> 01:06:27.450 align:middle line:90% OK. 01:06:27.450 --> 01:06:32.235 align:middle line:84% And then you wanted to know about schwa. 01:06:32.235 --> 01:06:33.985 align:middle line:84% Those are sometimes called central vowels. 01:06:33.985 --> 01:06:36.940 align:middle line:90% 01:06:36.940 --> 01:06:39.730 align:middle line:84% Sorry, the first vowel in "machine" is a schwa. 01:06:39.730 --> 01:06:40.900 align:middle line:90% It's not higher back. 01:06:40.900 --> 01:06:43.210 align:middle line:90% It's not front. 01:06:43.210 --> 01:06:44.680 align:middle line:90% It's not high or low. 01:06:44.680 --> 01:06:46.240 align:middle line:90% It's mid and central. 01:06:46.240 --> 01:06:49.960 align:middle line:84% And then "dove" [the bird] is pretty similar to schwa 01:06:49.960 --> 01:06:52.520 align:middle line:84% and is sometimes represented with that wedge shape there. 01:06:52.520 --> 01:06:53.920 align:middle line:90% In fact, it's called a wedge. 01:06:53.920 --> 01:06:57.430 align:middle line:84% Not all speakers of English distinguish schwa from wedge. 01:06:57.430 --> 01:06:58.100 align:middle line:90% I do. 01:06:58.100 --> 01:07:01.480 align:middle line:84% So for me, the vowels in above are two different vowels-- 01:07:01.480 --> 01:07:02.590 align:middle line:90% above. 01:07:02.590 --> 01:07:04.840 align:middle line:84% But there are speakers of English 01:07:04.840 --> 01:07:07.380 align:middle line:90% for whom they're the same. 01:07:07.380 --> 01:07:11.610 align:middle line:84% Similarly, let me go back to an earlier slide, 01:07:11.610 --> 01:07:14.370 align:middle line:84% not every dialect of English has all of these vowels 01:07:14.370 --> 01:07:16.360 align:middle line:84% or has them all in the same places. 01:07:16.360 --> 01:07:20.610 align:middle line:84% So I speak a dialect of English in which "caught" and "cot" are 01:07:20.610 --> 01:07:22.930 align:middle line:84% different, have different vowels in them. 01:07:22.930 --> 01:07:25.200 align:middle line:84% Does anybody pronounce those words the same? 01:07:25.200 --> 01:07:26.292 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 01:07:26.292 --> 01:07:27.750 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: I pronounce them the same. 01:07:27.750 --> 01:07:28.667 align:middle line:90% But I have a question. 01:07:28.667 --> 01:07:29.990 align:middle line:90% You said that they can't-- 01:07:29.990 --> 01:07:33.250 align:middle line:84% English monosyllables can't end in lax vowels. 01:07:33.250 --> 01:07:34.450 align:middle line:90% What about "law"? 01:07:34.450 --> 01:07:35.820 align:middle line:90% I know that ends in-- 01:07:35.820 --> 01:07:36.737 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 01:07:36.737 --> 01:07:38.640 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE] 01:07:38.640 --> 01:07:40.620 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah, yeah, yeah. 01:07:40.620 --> 01:07:41.700 align:middle line:90% So what did I say? 01:07:41.700 --> 01:07:45.060 align:middle line:84% They can't end in lax vowels that are either front or high. 01:07:45.060 --> 01:07:46.390 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Oh. 01:07:46.390 --> 01:07:49.330 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: So yeah, you're absolutely right. 01:07:49.330 --> 01:07:51.300 align:middle line:84% There are ones ending in "aw," like "law." 01:07:51.300 --> 01:07:52.770 align:middle line:90% Yeah, absolutely. 01:07:52.770 --> 01:07:55.440 align:middle line:90% Or "flaw." 01:07:55.440 --> 01:07:58.315 align:middle line:84% There are people who pronounce "caught" and "cot" the same. 01:07:58.315 --> 01:07:59.940 align:middle line:84% For me, those are two different vowels. 01:07:59.940 --> 01:08:01.260 align:middle line:84% Yeah, can you pronounce them for us? 01:08:01.260 --> 01:08:02.200 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: "Caught" and "cot." [pronounced identically] 01:08:02.200 --> 01:08:03.510 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: OK, cool. 01:08:03.510 --> 01:08:06.327 align:middle line:84% Did you say them in the same order or a different order? 01:08:06.327 --> 01:08:07.410 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: It didn't matter. 01:08:07.410 --> 01:08:07.950 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: It doesn't matter. 01:08:07.950 --> 01:08:08.490 align:middle line:90% OK, good. 01:08:08.490 --> 01:08:10.837 align:middle line:90% [LAUGHTER] 01:08:10.837 --> 01:08:13.890 align:middle line:90% I pronounce those three words-- 01:08:13.890 --> 01:08:15.780 align:middle line:90% "merry," "marry," and "Mary"-- 01:08:15.780 --> 01:08:17.123 align:middle line:90% I pronounce them the same. 01:08:17.123 --> 01:08:18.540 align:middle line:84% There are dialects of English that 01:08:18.540 --> 01:08:20.830 align:middle line:84% have different pronunciations for some of them. 01:08:20.830 --> 01:08:24.420 align:middle line:84% Does anybody pronounce these words differently? 01:08:24.420 --> 01:08:25.529 align:middle line:90% Yeah? 01:08:25.529 --> 01:08:27.180 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: "Merry," "marry," and "Mary." 01:08:27.180 --> 01:08:28.347 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Mary, yeah. 01:08:28.347 --> 01:08:31.080 align:middle line:84% So there are people for whom the vowel in the last one 01:08:31.080 --> 01:08:32.069 align:middle line:90% is more of an ash. 01:08:32.069 --> 01:08:33.660 align:middle line:90% It's like a "Mary." 01:08:33.660 --> 01:08:37.470 align:middle line:84% I associate that with New Jersey, where-- 01:08:37.470 --> 01:08:38.690 align:middle line:90% you're from New Jersey. 01:08:38.690 --> 01:08:40.740 align:middle line:90% Yeah, yes. 01:08:40.740 --> 01:08:43.560 align:middle line:90% I'll pay you later. 01:08:43.560 --> 01:08:44.850 align:middle line:90% OK, yeah. 01:08:44.850 --> 01:08:48.930 align:middle line:84% So OK, we've now rocketed through a bunch 01:08:48.930 --> 01:08:50.332 align:middle line:90% of consonants and vowels. 01:08:50.332 --> 01:08:51.540 align:middle line:90% We're just about out of time. 01:08:51.540 --> 01:08:53.946 align:middle line:84% Let me just give this to you as an exercise. 01:08:53.946 --> 01:08:54.779 align:middle line:90% And then we'll stop. 01:08:54.779 --> 01:08:56.946 align:middle line:84% Anybody want to try to pronounce the first of those? 01:08:56.946 --> 01:09:01.211 align:middle line:90% 01:09:01.211 --> 01:09:03.401 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: Sells. 01:09:03.401 --> 01:09:04.859 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: Oh, "She sells seashells." 01:09:04.859 --> 01:09:06.510 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: "She sells seashells." 01:09:06.510 --> 01:09:08.649 align:middle line:90% Yeah. 01:09:08.649 --> 01:09:09.580 align:middle line:90% I'll tell you what. 01:09:09.580 --> 01:09:11.240 align:middle line:84% We'll do this exercise next time. 01:09:11.240 --> 01:09:14.680 align:middle line:84% So next time, we'll do this as the first slide. 01:09:14.680 --> 01:09:16.359 align:middle line:90% And I'll leave it on the slides. 01:09:16.359 --> 01:09:19.343 align:middle line:84% You can work on it at home and do some fooling with it 01:09:19.343 --> 01:09:21.010 align:middle line:84% and try to get to where you can read it. 01:09:21.010 --> 01:09:22.990 align:middle line:84% As we go along, I'm going to be asking 01:09:22.990 --> 01:09:24.220 align:middle line:90% you to read things in IPA. 01:09:24.220 --> 01:09:26.500 align:middle line:84% So I'll start putting IPA on the slides more and more. 01:09:26.500 --> 01:09:28.630 align:middle line:84% So start trying to familiarize yourself with it 01:09:28.630 --> 01:09:30.850 align:middle line:84% and get to where you're familiar with at least 01:09:30.850 --> 01:09:33.713 align:middle line:84% the symbols for sounds that we use in English. 01:09:33.713 --> 01:09:35.380 align:middle line:84% Do you want me to read the rest of them? 01:09:35.380 --> 01:09:36.310 align:middle line:90% I'll do some more IPA. 01:09:36.310 --> 01:09:38.703 align:middle line:90% OK, so what's the second one? 01:09:38.703 --> 01:09:40.161 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: "Sue says he's a bad egg." 01:09:40.161 --> 01:09:41.953 align:middle line:84% NORVIN RICHARDS: "Sue says he's a bad egg." 01:09:41.953 --> 01:09:43.510 align:middle line:84% Yeah, you guys are fast learners. 01:09:43.510 --> 01:09:45.285 align:middle line:90% And what's the third one? 01:09:45.285 --> 01:09:46.375 align:middle line:90% STUDENT: [INAUDIBLE] 01:09:46.375 --> 01:09:47.500 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Excellent. 01:09:47.500 --> 01:09:49.771 align:middle line:90% And what's the last one? 01:09:49.771 --> 01:09:53.933 align:middle line:84% STUDENT: "Top chopstick shops stock top chopsticks." 01:09:53.933 --> 01:09:54.850 align:middle line:90% NORVIN RICHARDS: Yeah. 01:09:54.850 --> 01:09:58.720 align:middle line:84% "Top chopstick shops stock top chopsticks." 01:09:58.720 --> 01:10:01.060 align:middle line:84% Got that from a book of tongue twisters. 01:10:01.060 --> 01:10:01.720 align:middle line:90% OK, good. 01:10:01.720 --> 01:10:02.860 align:middle line:90% So let's leave it there. 01:10:02.860 --> 01:10:06.480 align:middle line:84% And we'll come back to this next time. 01:10:06.480 --> 01:10:11.000 align:middle line:90%