24.900 | Spring 2022 | Undergraduate

Introduction to Linguistics

Pages

Due: Session 7

LengthApproximately 1000 words (≈ 4 pages, double-spaced)

For the first paper in this class, you will read a published article that makes a claim about language, and write a short critical paper that summarizes and evaluates the authors’ claim. In order to do this, you will need to consider the evidence that is put forward in support of the claim and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the authors’ evidence and arguments.

The articles that you may choose from are listed below and can be accessed under “Assignment 1: Critical Summary Articles.”

A well-written paper should:

  • concisely summarize the main claim of the paper,
  • describe the key evidence that is presented in support of the claim,
  • evaluate whether the evidence confirms the researchers’ claim, or whether there might be other possible interpretations of the findings, and,
  • explain what broader and deeper questions about language are engaged by the research reported in the paper; in other words, why are the authors’ results interesting (or not) as part of a broader agenda of research on language?

In addition, the paper should do one or more of the following:

  • If the evidence is ambiguous or insufficient to confirm the claim, discuss what type of data would be helpful in order to distinguish between the competing hypotheses or interpretations.
  • If the evidence actually seems to support a different interpretation than the one that is advanced in the article, provide an argument for why we should draw a different conclusion from what the authors advocate.
  • Discuss possible implications of the finding, if you believe it is true. For example: what further predictions might we make, based on this result? What are some new hypotheses that we might make, and what sorts of additional data might we want to collect to test them?

You are not expected to do any research or consult other sources of information for this assignment.

Be sure to cite page numbers of any quotations from the article. A full bibliographic APA citation of the article should appear at the end of the essay. Please keep your paper to approximately 1000 words (not counting the bibliographic citation).

Articles to choose from:

Berent, I., Lennertz, T., Jun J., Moreno, M. & Smolensky, P. (2008). Language Universals in Human Brains. PNAS 105(14): 5321–5325.

Culbertson, J., & Adger, D. (2014). Language learners privilege structured meaning over surface frequency. PNAS 111(16): 5842–5847.

These articles do have some technical content, but they are not intended solely for readers with a strong background in Linguistics. Although there will be some technical terms and details of the analysis that go beyond what you have studied so far, you should be able to grasp the central ideas and claims of the article, which is all that we are expecting. If you are uncertain as to whether you are interpreting a technical term or analysis correctly, you can simply indicate this, and proceed on the assumption that you are correct. It is also fine to ask the instructor or a TA to verify your interpretation.

Grading Rubric

Criteria Pts

Introductory Framing & Focus

  • Does the introduction provide background about the linguistic issue? (3 pts)
  • Does the introduction present the article and a brief summary? (4 pts)
  • Does the introduction establish a clear position in the form of the central thesis? (3 pts)

10 pts   
 

Summary of the Article

  • How clearly does the essay describe the experimental method? (5 pts)
  • How explicitly does the essay present the key findings? (5 pts)
  • How well does the essay explain the authors’ interpretation of the findings linking it to the claim? (5 pts)

15 pts   
 

Critical Analysis Section

  • Does the author clearly formulate the key critical points in their analysis? (7 pts)
  • Is the critical analysis supported by evidence and reasoning? (8 pts)

15 pts   
 

Conclusion

  • Does the essay briefly recapitulate the key points of the paper and the analysis? (5 pts)
  • Does the essay highlight the significance of the study or suggest the direction for future research? (5 pts)

10 pts   
 

Use of Sources and Citations

  • Is evidence from the source material incorporated into the essay appropriately (mostly through paraphrasing)? (4 pts)
  • Is the source material cited in text where appropriate? (3 pts)
  • Does the essay add the source at the end of the paper? (3 pts)

10 pts   
 

Organization

  • Does the essay have a clear overarching structure? (5 pts)
  • Are the key points arranged in a logical sequence? (5 pts)
  • Are paragraphs structured around a central, unifying idea that’s expressed in a topic sentence? (5 pts)
  • Are transitions & signal phrases used to highlight connections among the main points? (5 pts)

20 pts   
 

Expression

  • Are ideas and information conveyed in clear, fluent prose? (5 pts)
  • Is the tone of the essay neutral and respectful? (5 pts)
  • Is the style of the essay appropriate for the essay’s purpose and target audience? (5 pts)

15 pts   
 

Mechanics

  • Is the essay free of mechanical errors, including grammar, punctuation, & spelling?

5 pts   
 
Total Points: 100

Due: Session 15

Length: approximately 1000 words (≈ 4 pages, double-spaced)

In this assignment, you are to write a research proposal, in which you describe an unsolved problem, your hypothesis, and how you would test it given time and materials for research. 

By this point in the course, we have seen possible solutions to a number of linguistic problems; there are other kinds of issues that we have not yet discussed, and others that we will never touch on at all. Your job in this writing assignment is to pick some questions that you wish you knew the answer to, and explain how you might go about understanding them better. 

Your question may, but need not, center on the language that you have started doing fieldwork on for the class. You could, for example, decide to concentrate on some of the cross-linguistic differences that you have talked about in class, and try to find out how the language you are working on behaves: 

  • We’ve seen that languages differ with respect to the kinds of clusters of consonants they allow; English has words, for example, that begin with a stop followed by a liquid (like dress), but Japanese does not allow words to begin this way (which is why English dress is borrowed into Japanese as doresu). How does the language you’re working on behave? You could ask the speaker you are working with what happens to words that are borrowed into the language from other languages (you could, for example, make up a set of words that are impermissible, and ask the speaker what changes would be made to them if they were borrowed). 
  • Languages vary with respect to their phonetic inventories; the sets of consonants and vowels they have. What is the phonetic inventory of your language? 
  • Languages have different systems for placement of stress in words. Does your language have stress? What determines where it is positioned? And how is it realized? You could make some recordings of stressed words and use Praat to analyze them; does stress affect the pitch of the stressed syllable, for example? or its loudness? You could also compare the effects of stress in the language you’re studying to those in your own native language. 
  • Languages differ, as we saw, with respect to the behavior of their morphology. Does your language use affixes, for example, to convert verbs into adjectives or nouns? Consider some of the morphemes we discussed in English, and try finding out how the language you’re studying expresses the same meanings. 

These are just some ideas to get you started; you shouldn’t feel constrained to choose any of them. You also don’t have to write about the language you’re working on at all; you can find some other topic in linguistics, either one we’ve covered or one we haven’t mentioned at all, and tell us what you would like to know about it. We are happy to talk with you about possible topics; if you have a topic you’d like to explore, check with your TA or your class instructors.

Once you have identified a topic you would like to explore, you should: 

  • describe the topic fully and clearly, assuming an audience that has taken 24.900 but has no other specialized knowledge. 
  • discuss what you would like to find out about this domain. Outline hypotheses about possible answers to the questions you are posing. 
  • propose how you would go about gathering data bearing on the topic. 
  • discuss briefly how the data might turn out.

Rubric for the Research Proposal

Criteria Pts

Background

Topic and its background (5pts) 
A clear problem/ question (5pts) 
Data illustrating the problem (5pts) 
Importance of the problem (5pts) 
The hypotheses (5pts)

25 pts 
 

Research Data

The data needed to answer the question.

20 pts 
 

Methodology

Information about the subjects (4pts) 
A detailed account of the testing conditions (4pts) 
Description of the recording process (3pts) 
Explanation of the data analysis process (4pts)

15 pts 
 

Predictions and Significance

Possible outcomes of your research (5pts) 
Value/significance of answering the research question (5pts)

10 pts 
 

Organization

The proposal has a clear section structure with proper headings (5pts). 
The key elements are arranged in a logical sequence (5pts). 
The paragraphs are structured around a central, unifying idea (5pts). 
Transitions & signal phrases are used to highlight connections among the main points (5pts).

20 pts 
 

Clarity and Mechanics

The writing is clear and easy to read (5pts). 
The proposal does not have grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors (5pts).

10 pts 
 
Total Points: 100

Due: Session 22

Length: 3000 words

In this paper, you will report on the results of your linguistic fieldwork. Imagine that linguists knew nothing about your fieldwork language until you got to work on it, and you are the first linguist to conduct work on this language. You should write a preliminary “grammatical sketch” of the language. You will report and analyze the data from your own field notes; you should include only the data that you have collected yourself, not data gathered from other sources. You should assume an audience that knows a bit about linguistics—you should imagine that they know everything we’ve talked about in class—but nothing about your particular language. 

If you want to see what a grammatical sketch should look like, there is one very good example of one here: https://julietstanton.github.io/files/stanton_saafi_sketch.pdf (PDF - 4 MB) 

This sketch was written on the basis of much more work than you have had a chance to do; you certainly aren’t expected to provide this level of detail. But this sketch can give you a sense of the kinds of things people write about in this kind of work. 

Your sketch should be written in full sentences and paragraphs, offering data that support your claims about the language. You should follow the glossing conventions that we’ve talked about for this class, presenting numbered examples, with a line in the original language, a line of glosses, and then a translation, enclosed in single quotation marks: 

(1) a. ‘T-olomi-ptu-ni-ya               oqiton 

          3-away-carry-INAN-3PL    canoe 

          ‘They carried the canoe away with them’

     b. Moc-uwe-lams-uk-e 

          bad-hair-blow-PASS-3 

          ‘His/her hair is messed up by the wind’ 

For the ‘language’ line, you should write the language in a way that will enable us to read it. If the language uses the Roman alphabet or has a standard Romanization, feel free to use that; if not, you should use IPA. 

For the ‘gloss’ line, you should use any abbreviations that you feel you need, and explain to us what they mean in a footnote at the beginning of the sketch (the footnote can start with “In this paper, I will use the following abbreviations: INAN=inanimate, PL= plural…”). Don’t worry about using the “wrong” abbreviations; you won’t be graded on whether your terms are the ones linguists generally use. If you’d like to see some guidelines that some linguists sometimes follow, there are some at https://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php.

The numbering allows you to refer to the examples in your text (that is you can say things like “we see in (1a) that Passamaquoddy verbs agree with both the subject and the object”). 

You should begin with a paragraph or two of background about the language, and about the person that you worked with. What language is it? Is it a particular dialect of a larger language? Where is it spoken, and by how many people? What language family does it belong to? Where did the person you are working with grow up, and (if relevant) what other languages do they speak? Make sure to ask permission before sharing any information that might be considered personal. 

You should describe the results you have already told us about in previous problem sets. Having done that, you may find that you have not yet written 3000 words, in which case you should try to find some more things to discuss. You should feel free to find topics of your own to investigate, possibly inspired by topics we’ve discussed in class; we are always happy to talk with you about possible topics if you’d like. A few suggestions follow: 

  • Describe the phonology of your language. What is its phonetic inventory? What kinds of consonant clusters does it allow? 
  • You have studied a little bit of the morphology of your language. What other morphemes have you found? 
  • We have studied some conditions on the behavior of pronouns and anaphors (words with meanings like he and herself). How do these expressions behave in the language you are studying? Are the rules for their behavior the same as those we’ve discussed in class? 
  • You were invited to find out how wh-questions are formed in your language. As we’ve seen, wh-questions are sometimes impossible (that is, wh-movement cannot proceed out of islands). Does the language you are studying exhibit the island effects we have discussed? 

Finally, you may very well discover that you haven’t had enough time to find out everything you’d like to. If there’s some aspect of the language that you’re interested in but haven’t had time to fully explore, you can tell us about that. What future work would you do on this language, given the time and resources? What other questions would you like to ask? What kind of data would you try to gather, and how? 

As always, you should feel free to consult with all of us (including your professor, your TA, and the writing advisors) about every aspect of this paper.

SES # Lecture Topics Due Dates
1 Introduction  
2 Morphology   
3 Morphology Problem Set 0 due
4 Morphology  
5 Phonetics  
6 Phonetics Problem Set 1 due
7 Phonetics (shading into Phonology) Written Assignment 1 due
8 Phonology  
9 Phonology  
10 Phonology Problem Set 2 due
11 Syntax  
12 Syntax  
13 Syntax  
14 Syntax  
15 Syntax Written Assignment 2 and Problem Set 3 due
16 Syntax  
17 Finishing Syntax, Starting Semantics  
18 Semantics  
19 Semantics  
20 Semantics  
21 Semantics Problem Set 4 due
22 Dialects Written Assignment 3 due
23 Historical Linguistics  
24 Endangered Languages  
25 Language Acquisition  
26 Signed Languages  

Due: last day of class

For this assignment, you will revise one of the three papers that you wrote during the  semester. The revisions should focus on improving the content, argumentation, organization and style of the original paper. Your revised paper will be graded based on the quality of the final paper and the extent of the revisions. 

Your revisions may involve reconsidering and refining the claims of the paper. Perhaps further reflection might reveal a different or better way to capture data that you presented. Good revisions should also improve the flow of the argument: clearly present the thesis up front, provide well organized data and explain how they support the claims, include transitions that explain how one point leads to the next, and so on. Finally, revisions  strengthen the argument by ensuring that the data that you have selected truly supports the claims of the paper, and is not open to alternative interpretations. (Or, if alternative interpretations exist, explain why we should favor your interpretation.) In some cases, improving the argumentation might involve adding additional data that more directly supports your thesis; however, in just as many cases, it will involve removing material   
that is superfluous or only weakly makes the point. The main focus should be on improving the writing, and not on expanding the paper with substantial amounts of new data. 

Some points to keep in mind: 

  • Feedback from your TA and from the Writing Advisors for this class will help you identify aspects of the paper that would benefit most from revision. We highly recommend consulting with them. 
  • Many of you will be revising papers that were already very good to start with. Still, every paper has room for improvement! If you feel that your argument was already clearly organized, you may wish to devote some thought to possible alternative analyses/interpretations. Frequently, giving serious sympathetic consideration to an opposing interpretation will reveal places where you could bolster your argument. It may also provide additional discussion points about predictions that would distinguish the theories, which merit further investigation. 
  • You do not need to adhere to the original page limit, if your revisions require adding additional data, arguments, or discussion points. Please be judicious with extra pages, though! Additional material should still be concise and to the point.

Due: Session 3

Tell us about yourself: what got you interested in this class? what are you hoping to get out of it? 

and: 

  • Find a native speaker of a language you don’t know (i.e., do not speak, have never studied), who would be willing to work with you for up to five one-hour sessions throughout the semester. 
  • Submit to us in writing:   
    o The language name, and where your speaker is from   
    o The name of the language, as native speakers refer to it   
    o The classification (linguistic affiliation) of the language—i.e., what language family it belongs to. 

Answers to frequently asked questions:

  • What if you are a native speaker of a language other than English?   
    o You must still find a speaker of a language you do not know (i.e., you cannot use yourself).   
    o However, you may act as the speaker for someone else in the class. 
  • What if you want to study Klingon, Sindarin, etc.?   
    o If you can find a native speaker of Klingon, feel free to use them. Be very careful.

Due: Session 6

Part One

Consider the following Iñupiaq sentences: 

a. Kamiqaqtuq      
‘He/she has boots’ 

b. Qayaq kiñŋuruq      
‘The kayak is capsizing’ 

c. Itiqtutin      
‘You are awake’ 

d. Sialuktuq      
‘It’s raining’ 

e. Atigiqaqtuq      
‘He/she has a parka’ 

f. Qimmit niġirut      
‘The dogs are eating’ 

g. Iglu qatiqtuq      
‘The house is white’ 

h. Tiŋmiruŋa      
‘I am flying’ 

i. Kamikluqaqtutin      
‘You have pants’ 

j. Kamik maŋaqtuq      
‘The boot is black’ 

k. Niġirutin      
‘You are eating’ 

l. Qayaqaqtuŋa      
‘I have a kayak’ 

m. Atigi mikiruq      
‘The parka is small’

n. Aġnaq iglaqtuq      
‘The woman is laughing’ 

o. Qimmiq nakuuruq      
‘The dog is all right’ 

p. Iglut aŋirut      
‘The houses are big’ 

q. Qimmiqaqtuŋa      
‘I have a dog’ 

r. Aġnaq aquppiruq      
‘The woman is sitting’ 

s. Qayaq aŋiruq      
‘The kayak is big’ 

t. Igluqaqtutin      
‘You have a house’ 

u. Qaugat tiŋmirut      
‘The ducks are flying’ 

1. Make as complete a list as you can of the morphemes appearing in these sentences. You may sometimes not have enough information to be sure what the underlying form of a particular morpheme should be; at times like that, you can just list a couple of possible forms. 

2. If a morpheme has allomorphs, list the allomorphs, and try to explain what determines which form appears where. Don’t worry too much about how the rule conditioning the allomorphs should be stated; just describe it in ordinary English. If this were a problem set about Polish, for example, I’d want you to say something like “If g is at the end of a word, it turns into k”. 

3. How would you say the following in Iñupiaq? 

i. You are all right. 

ii. The parkas are white. 

Part Two 

Find out how to indicate that a noun is plural in the language that you’re working on. 

You should get translations for at least five sentences, with singular and plural nouns in them (so, at least ten sentences in all). For example, you could find out how to say pairs like:

1. The woman read the book. 

2. The women read the books. 

Give us the data you collect with glosses for each word in each sentence, followed by translations into English, like this: 

3. Ehpit ‘tokitomon wikhikon 

woman read book      
‘The woman read the book’ 

Answer at least the following questions: 

Question 1: List at least one allomorph for the plural morpheme (it’s entirely possible that there will only be one). You don’t have to find all the allomorphs to get full credit for this question. You may discover that your language just doesn’t mark plural on nouns: what you should do then is make at least two of your sentences ones in which the subject has to be interpreted as plural. For example, you could get translations of sentences like: 

4. The men are criticizing each other.      

5. The students met outside. 

These are sentences in which the subjects have to be plural (for example, *The man is criticizing each other doesn’t make sense). So you can use translations like this to demonstrate that some nouns are plural in your language, even if there’s no marking of plural. 

Question 2: Are the plural morphemes bound or free? 

Question 3a: If the plural morpheme is bound, what kind of bound morpheme is it? a prefix? a suffix? 

Question 3b: If the plural morpheme is free, are there any constraints on the place it appears in the sentence? e.g., can an adjective come between it and the noun?

Due: Session 10

Part 1: Greenlandic Vowels 

Examine the distribution of the vowels [i, e, u, o, ɑ] in the data below. Your task is to analyze the data and determine what the underlying vowels are, and how many of them there are. It’s possible that there are fewer than five underlying vowels, and that some of these surface vowels are really allophones of a single underlying vowel phoneme. Or maybe not. You decide. 

[ʀ] is a uvular trill, [q] a voiceless uvular stop. 

  • ivnɑq ‘bluff’ 
  • imɑq ‘sea’ 
  • itumɑq ‘palm of hand’ 
  • iseʀɑq ‘ankle’ 
  • qɑsɑloq ‘bark’ 
  • qilɑluvɑq ‘white whale’ 
  • sɑkiɑk ‘rib’ 
  • oʀpik ‘tree’ 
  • mɑʀʀɑq ‘clay’ 
  • ipeʀɑq ‘harpoon strap’ 
  • tuluvɑq ‘raven’ 
  • nɑnoq ‘bear’ 
  • seʀmeq ‘glacier’ 
  • ikusik ‘elbow’ 
  • qɑtigɑk ‘back’ 
  • ugsik ‘cow’ 
  • neʀdloq ‘goose’ 

Once you have determined what the underlying vowels are, formulate a rule or rules (if your analysis requires them) that accounts for all the data above. You can state the rule using prose: for example, you could say something like “The back vowels become front vowels before nasal  consonants,” if you think that’s the right rule (spoiler: it’s not!). Your analysis should include a lexicon (with each of the words in its underlying form), in addition to a few sample derivations. 

Part 2: Transcription 

Rewrite these sentences in standard English spelling (putting in whatever punctuation seems appropriate). The transcription corresponds (roughly) to the pronunciation of Norvin Richards, and of course your accent may be different! If you do notice differences, feel free to write us a note about them. 

  1. ðij ʌðəɹ dej aj gɑt awt ə kʰæn opənəɹ ænd wəz opənɪŋ ə kʰæn əv wəɹmz wɛn aj θɔt wʌt æm aj duwɪŋ 
  2. juw sej tʰəmeɾow ænd aj sej tʰəmɑɾow 
  3. ʃen ɪz spɛld ɛs etʃ ej ɛn ij 
  4. ə læŋgwədʒ ɪz ə dajəlɛkt wɪθ ən ɑɹmij ænd ə nevij 
  5. aj hæv ə dɹim ðæt wʌn dej ðɪs neʃən wɪl ɹajz ʌp ænd lɪv awt ðə tɹuw minɪŋ əv ɪts kɹid 
  6. nobəɾi noz wʌt wets əhɛd bijɑnd ðij əɹθ ænd skaj 
  7. ðə wəɹld wɪl lɪɾəl not noɹ lɔŋ ɹəmɛmbəɹ wʌt wij sej hiɹ bʌt ɪt kʰæn nɛvəɹ fəɹgɛt wʌt ðej dɪd hiɹ 
  8. wɛn juw khʌm tuw ə foɹk ɪn ðə ɹod thek ɪt 
  9. ðə ful ɔn ðə hɪl siz ðə sʌn gowɪŋ dawn 
  10. sʌmwʌn ɪz ɹɔŋ ɔn ðə ɪntəɹnɛt 
  11. aj lajk ɛskəleɾəɹz bəkɔz ən ɛskəleɾəɹ kən nɛvəɹ bɹek ɪt kən onlij bəkʰʌm steɹz

Due: Session 15

In this problem set you will be gathering some data about the syntax of the language that you are  working on this semester. 

When you hand this problem set in, you can write the language you are studying either in IPA, or in a Roman alphabet that is standardly used for the language. Please do not present data in writing systems other than these (do not, for example, give us data written in a non-Roman writing system). 

You should present the data in three lines, as in this example: 

(1) vulqangan legh tlhIngan      
Vulcan sees Klingon      
‘The Klingon sees the Vulcan’ 

Each example should have a number, which you’ll be able to refer to in the text of your answer (“we can see in example (1) that the verb follows the object in Klingon”). The first line of the example should be in the language you are studying. On the second line, you should provide a gloss for each word, literally translating each word into English. And then the third line should be an English translation, marked with single quotation marks. 

Since you will need to gloss your examples, part of your job will be to find out translations for each word of the sentence (that is, if your speaker gave you the Klingon sentence in (1), you would next need to ask questions like “What does legh mean?”) 

Your writing sample should be a .pdf file, ideally created by a word processor. If entering the language in a keyboard is too cumbersome, then you can also write the data by hand and scan them separately. If you go with this option, please type all of the discussion, and give us the data as a separate sheet. 

Problem One: Verbs and Objects 

Get translations of two sentences with structures like those in (2-4): 

(2) The dog saw a rabbit.      
(3) The woman is reading a newspaper.      
(4) The students have eaten the pizza. 

You do not have to use any of the sentences in (2–4), but the sentences you use should contain verbs (like saw, reading, and eaten in the sentences above) that have objects (like a rabbit, a newspaper, and the pizza). If you are considering getting a translation of a sentence and are not sure whether it has an object, feel free to check in with any of us (this is true for anything in this assignment). 

Languages vary with respect to the order of their verbs and their objects. In English, verbs typically precede objects. What is the order in the language you are studying? Or is either order possible? 

Problem Two: Prepositions and Objects 

Get translations of two sentences with structures parallel to those in (5–7): 

(5) The professor is talking about linguistics.      
(6) The boy left without an umbrella.      
(7) The students fell asleep during the lecture. 

Again, you do not have to use any of these particular sentences, but your English sentences should have prepositions in them (like about, without, and during in the sentences above). 

There are several ways in which the data you get in this problem might be hard to interpret. The language may just not use prepositions in the same places English does; for example, if you use sentence (5), you may get a translation in which talking about is translated as a single verb (something more parallel to The professor is discussing linguistics). If this happens, don’t be alarmed; just report on the data you have. Discovering that the language you are studying doesn’t use prepositions in the same way that English does qualifies as a discovery. 

In some languages, it may be unclear whether there truly is a preposition, as opposed to some kind of case ending on the noun in question. Again, this would be an interesting result, which you should just report; we’re not expecting you to be able to figure out whether the preposition is a separate word or an affix on the noun (though it would be interesting to hear what your language consultant thinks about this question). 

In English, prepositions precede their objects. Is this true in the language you are studying? 

Problem Three: Adjectives and Nouns 

Get translations of two sentences with structures parallel to those in (8-10): 

(8) I bought a red book.      
(9) A hungry monkey has eaten our pizza.      
(10) We are making delicious sandwiches. 

Again, you may discover that the language you are studying has nothing exactly parallel to English adjectives like red, hungry, and delicious. Just tell us what you find. 

In English, adjectives fairly reliably precede the nouns that they modify. Is this true in the language you are studying? 

Problem Four: Questions 

Languages vary in the ways that they form questions. Some languages, like English, require certain kinds of questions to begin with words that express what the question is about: 

(11) What did Mary buy? 

Words like what in (11) are called “wh-words” in linguistics, because in English they mostly begin with the letters “wh” (the term is used for every language, not just for English). 

Some languages do not require wh-words to be at the beginning of the sentence: 

(12) Mary mai shenmo? [Mandarin]      
Mary buy what      
‘What did Mary buy?’ 

(13) Mary-wa nani-o katta? [Japanese]      
Mary what bought      
‘What did Mary buy?’ 

What does your language do with its wh-words? Do they go at the beginning of the sentence, or not? Or does the language have both options? Give us at least one example of a wh-question.

Due: Session 21

Part One 

Draw a tree for the following sentence. Don’t use triangles. 

(1) Because it was raining, the purple ants were devoured. 

Part Two 

Consider the sentence in (2): 

(2) These are the people [who you might know]. 

Here’s a tree we might posit for the structure of the NP at the end of (2):  

a syntactic tree for a sentence

In (3), who starts off as the object of know, and undergoes wh-movement to the specifier of CP.  We have so far only seen wh-movement in questions, but the CP in (3) isn’t a question; it’s a relative clause, a kind of clause which modifies a noun. 

The sentence in (4) seems to mean more or less the same thing as the one in (2): 

(4) These are the people [you might know]. 

Here are two theories we might have about the structure of (4). 

Theory #1: the NP at the end of (4) has no CP, and no wh-movement. Know simply lacks a complement: 

(5) 

Theory #2: the NP at the end of (4) has a CP, and wh-movement; it differs from (2) in that the phrase which is wh-movement is not pronounced (I’ve represented it here with a Ø symbol).

(6) 

How do the data in (7–10) bear on the choice between these theories? 

(7) *These are the people you might know my cousin and.         
(8) *These are the people you might think that will win the race.         
(9) These are the people you might think will win the race.         
(10) *These are the people you are wondering where you met. 

(Assume that the sentences I’ve given * to are in fact ungrammatical…though if this is not true for you, please feel free to tell us so!)

Part Three 

In the language you are working on, try to form at least one wh-question that violates one or more of the conditions on movement that we talked about in class. Does the language you are working on exhibit these conditions? Not every language does, so it’ll be interesting to see what you manage to find out. If your language doesn’t move wh-phrases, that’s fine; find out how the speaker feels about sentences in which the wh-phrase is pronounced inside an island. 

In order to get information about island violations, you should probably first try to form a related well-formed wh-question, and then construct the island without wh-movement, and finally create the example with wh-movement out of an island. For example, if you decide you want to look for the effects of the Coordinate Structure Constraint, you would first want to ask for a coordinate structure; find out how to say “She ate a cookie and an apple” (substituting whatever food seems culturally appropriate). Then find out how to say “What did she eat?” You will hopefully then be in a position to combine the sentences you’ve gotten, so that you can find out how to say “What did she eat a cookie and?”,. and find out whether this is as ungrammatical in the language you’re studying as it is in English.

Readings for Written Assignment 1

Berent, I., Lennertz, T., Jun, J., Moreno, M., and Smolensky, P. (2008). “Language Universals in Human Brains.” PNAS 105(14), 5321–5325.

Culbertson, J., and Adger, D. (2014). “Language Learners Privilege Structured Meaning over Surface Frequency.” PNAS 111(16), 5842–5847.

Optional Reading

Young, V. A. (2010). “Should Writers Use They Own English?” Iowa Journal of Cultural Studies 12(1), 110–118.

Other Resources

IPA Chart (from the International Phonetic Association website)

Seeing Speech (IPA chart with MRIs)

IPA Palette (an easy way to type IPA on a MAC)

IPA Wordle

Another IPA Wordle

Speech Perception (sinewave synthesis)

More on Speech Perception (a talking piano)

The McGurk Effect (YouTube)

UCLA Phonetics Lab Data

Course Meeting Times

Lectures: 2 sessions / week, 1.5 hours / session

Recitations: 1 session / week, 1 hour / session

Prerequisites

There are no prerequisites for this course.

Course Description

This class will provide some answers to basic questions about the nature of human language. Throughout the course, we will be examining a number of ways in which human language is a complex but law-governed mental system. Much of the class will be devoted to studying some core aspects of this system in detail; we will also spend individual classes discussing a number of other issues, including how language is acquired, how languages change over time, language endangerment, and others.

Readings

Assigned readings are listed on the Readings page; you should also review the Lecture Slides. There is no textbook for this course. If you would like to have a textbook, a pretty good one is:

  • O’Grady, William, John Archibald, Mark Aronoff, and Janie Rees-Miller (2017). Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

This would probably be our textbook, if we were going to have a textbook…but it isn’t quite good enough to justify making you buy it. It could be a useful resource, but you should bear in mind that we will be contradicting what it says, every so often. The general rule, if you seem to see a contradiction between us and the book, is that we are right and the book is wrong (though if you notice contradictions like this, it’s worth asking about them; maybe there’s some mistake, either yours or ours).

More generally, if there is any conflict between information on the course slides and information you get from any other source, including sources that we upload on the course website, you should take the information on the course slides to be correct. We reserve the right to deduct points on problem sets for answers that contradict the information on the slides, even if your answer is in accordance with information you got from another source.

Recordings and Attendance

This classroom is designed to make recordings of the lectures, and of the slides and the blackboard. I’ve never used this system before, so I don’t know how good the recordings will be. The recordings will be made freely available to anyone who:

In neither case do you have to give me a reason for needing the recording. If you have to miss class for a reason that S3 can help you with, then you should contact S3, and they will send me an e-mail which will not give me any details about your situation—it will just say something like “[your name] has been in touch with us, and we agree that they should be given access to the recordings of the class for [dates]."

Homework: Problem Sets and Papers

You will have regular homework assignments.

Problem Sets

Most weeks, you will be assigned a problem set. Most of the questions in these assignments will ask you to draw and justify conclusions about data that we supply from real languages (sometimes slightly simplified), using and extending concepts and analytic techniques discussed in class and in the readings.

Some of these problem sets will also require you to do linguistic fieldwork. For these assignments, we will ask you to find a speaker of a language that you do not speak and have never studied, and to learn some specific things about that language from that speaker. If possible, you should work on the same language in each problem (but this is not a requirement).

Papers

HASS CI subjects must require at least 5000 words of writing, divided among 3–5 assignments. Of these assignments, at least one must be revised and resubmitted. HASS CI subjects should further offer students substantial opportunity for oral expression, through presentations, student-led discussion, or class participation. In order to guarantee sufficient attention to student writing and substantial opportunity for oral expression, the maximum number of students per section in a HASS CI subject is 18.

You will be required to write three relatively short papers:

  • a critical summary (1000 words)
  • a research proposal (1000 words)
  • a fieldwork report (3000 words)

You will also submit an additional polished paper, which may be a revised version of any of these three. The choice of which paper to revise is yours. The grade for the revised, polished paper will emphasize the quality and thoughtfulness of the revisions.

We will discuss the topics of these papers as the semester progresses. Your opportunities for “oral expression” will arise in the fieldwork parts of the course, as well as in class and in recitation.

Two writing advisors from the Writing and Communication Center have been assigned to this course, who will be available to help you develop, structure, and revise your papers. We strongly encourage all students to make use of this resource, and in some cases we may require it for your benefit as writers.

Due dates:

Problem sets will be posted on Tuesday, and will be due the following Tuesday, where Tuesday is understood as ending at dawn on Wednesday. Papers will be due as indicated on the syllabus (which may be revised as needed, so please continue to check the class website).

It is our goal to have problem sets corrected for discussion in recitation by that Friday. Papers may take longer to be returned.

You may hand in one paper up to three days late. You don’t have to tell us why; just let us know in advance that your paper will be late. Similarly, you may hand in one problem set up to three days late, as long as you let us know in advance.

How to submit problem sets and papers

Problem sets and papers should be submitted online as PDF files, either created directly from the word processor of your choice or scanned from legible originals. Please do not send us any other kind of electronic file. If you feel you need to submit an assignment non-electronically, check with your recitation instructor first.

If you are having problems with any assignment, do not hesitate to get in touch with your recitation leader or with the instructor, in person or by e-mail. We are more than happy to help. 

Grading

  • Problem sets: 40% [lowest problem set grade dropped]
  • Papers: 60%

Honesty and Collaboration Policy

Please read these guidelines carefully. In case of academic dishonesty, ignorance of these rules will not be taken as an excuse.

  • General discussion with other students of concepts and techniques relevant to the problem sets is acceptable and encouraged (“remind me, how do I know if something is an allophone?”)—but you must arrive at the actual solutions to problems on your own and you must write them up on your own. Collaboration on problems is not allowed.
  • Print and online sources should not be consulted (unless the directions specify otherwise) in connection with problem sets. We’ll be delighted if you want to learn more about a language or an issue taken up in a homework problem—but this should be done after you have submitted the problem set.
  • All print and online sources consulted in the process of writing a paper must be explicitly acknowledged in the text of your paper, and listed in the references section. All quotations must be indicated and fully referenced.
  • If we determine that the Honesty and Collaboration Policy described above has been violated in any assignment, we will take appropriate measures. At a minimum, that assignment will receive a grade of zero and will count as unsubmitted. We will also not hesitate to refer the matter to the Office of Student Citizenship and the Committee on Discipline.

If you have not done so already, please familiarize yourself with the MIT Academic Integrity guidelines.

Course Info

As Taught In
Spring 2022
Learning Resource Types
Lecture Videos
Lecture Notes
Written Assignments
Problem Sets