WEBVTT 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:02.190 align:middle line:90% 00:00:02.190 --> 00:00:06.330 align:middle line:84% [HAITIAN CREOLE SPEECH]:: Anpil nan kesyon ke nou te poze nan 00:00:06.330 --> 00:00:08.858 align:middle line:84% kou a te baze sou biyografi lengwistik etidyan yo. 00:00:08.858 --> 00:00:11.400 align:middle line:84% Li te vreman enteresan ni pou etidyan yo ni pou mwen menm kòm 00:00:11.400 --> 00:00:11.900 align:middle line:90% anseyan. 00:00:11.900 --> 00:00:14.940 align:middle line:90% 00:00:14.940 --> 00:00:17.160 align:middle line:84% SARAH HANSEN: Today on the podcast, what language 00:00:17.160 --> 00:00:19.780 align:middle line:90% teaches us about identity. 00:00:19.780 --> 00:00:21.960 align:middle line:84% MICHEL DEGRAFF: Can you be Mauritian but not 00:00:21.960 --> 00:00:23.610 align:middle line:84% speak the Mauritian Creole language? 00:00:23.610 --> 00:00:27.840 align:middle line:84% Can you be Latino but not be fluent in Spanish? 00:00:27.840 --> 00:00:30.360 align:middle line:84% Can you be African American but yet not be 00:00:30.360 --> 00:00:34.548 align:middle line:84% fully fluent in so-called Black English? 00:00:34.548 --> 00:00:36.090 align:middle line:84% SARAH HANSEN: Welcome to Chalk Radio, 00:00:36.090 --> 00:00:38.820 align:middle line:84% a podcast about inspired teaching at MIT. 00:00:38.820 --> 00:00:44.280 align:middle line:84% I'm your host, Sarah Hansen, from MIT OpenCourseWare. 00:00:44.280 --> 00:00:46.710 align:middle line:84% My guest for this episode created a course 00:00:46.710 --> 00:00:48.600 align:middle line:84% that teaches students about how language 00:00:48.600 --> 00:00:52.240 align:middle line:84% helps us see and better understand our world. 00:00:52.240 --> 00:00:55.080 align:middle line:84% Michel DeGraff teaches the course Creole Languages 00:00:55.080 --> 00:00:57.090 align:middle line:90% and Caribbean Identities. 00:00:57.090 --> 00:00:59.280 align:middle line:84% The course highlights how linguistics can teach us 00:00:59.280 --> 00:01:03.420 align:middle line:84% about broader issues of identity, history, education, 00:01:03.420 --> 00:01:04.620 align:middle line:90% and more. 00:01:04.620 --> 00:01:06.030 align:middle line:84% Throughout this episode, we'll be 00:01:06.030 --> 00:01:08.220 align:middle line:84% intercutting professor DeGraff's answers 00:01:08.220 --> 00:01:10.350 align:middle line:90% with his Creole translations. 00:01:10.350 --> 00:01:13.140 align:middle line:84% For now, we'll let him explain more about how he 00:01:13.140 --> 00:01:16.650 align:middle line:90% developed this unique course. 00:01:16.650 --> 00:01:19.760 align:middle line:84% [HAITIAN CREOLE SPEECH]:: Rechèch mwen se sou devlòpman avèk 00:01:19.760 --> 00:01:21.600 align:middle line:84% MICHEL DEGRAFF: My research is about 00:01:21.600 --> 00:01:24.720 align:middle line:84% trying to understand how languages evolve over time 00:01:24.720 --> 00:01:28.160 align:middle line:84% and what happens when new languages are created. 00:01:28.160 --> 00:01:30.670 align:middle line:84% Say, for example, in the Caribbean in my native Haiti, 00:01:30.670 --> 00:01:33.610 align:middle line:84% where the Haitian Creole emerged in the 17th-18th century. 00:01:33.610 --> 00:01:36.270 align:middle line:84% So we try to understand the patterns of development 00:01:36.270 --> 00:01:39.320 align:middle line:84% of the things that we call Creole languages. 00:01:39.320 --> 00:01:43.300 align:middle line:84% In terms of the structure, but also an applied side to my work 00:01:43.300 --> 00:01:46.710 align:middle line:84% where I try to understand how best to use, say, 00:01:46.710 --> 00:01:49.620 align:middle line:84% Haitian Creole and other local languages in education. 00:01:49.620 --> 00:01:52.110 align:middle line:84% And how that's crucial for development 00:01:52.110 --> 00:01:53.850 align:middle line:90% of countries like Haiti. 00:01:53.850 --> 00:01:56.190 align:middle line:84% So the course started out of a desire 00:01:56.190 --> 00:02:00.450 align:middle line:84% to try to have linguistics be accessible to a broader 00:02:00.450 --> 00:02:03.960 align:middle line:84% range of students, within which we could connect languages 00:02:03.960 --> 00:02:06.900 align:middle line:84% to larger issues of culture and identity. 00:02:06.900 --> 00:02:11.423 align:middle line:84% And as I'm from Haiti and as my research is Creole languages, 00:02:11.423 --> 00:02:12.840 align:middle line:84% I try to think of ways in which we 00:02:12.840 --> 00:02:16.050 align:middle line:84% can use the history of Creole languages 00:02:16.050 --> 00:02:19.140 align:middle line:84% to introduce larger issues connected to linguistics, 00:02:19.140 --> 00:02:23.590 align:middle line:84% identity, history, sociology, education. 00:02:23.590 --> 00:02:25.090 align:middle line:84% SARAH HANSEN: Even though the course 00:02:25.090 --> 00:02:28.810 align:middle line:84% focuses on Caribbean identities and Creole languages, 00:02:28.810 --> 00:02:31.060 align:middle line:84% the course requires its students who 00:02:31.060 --> 00:02:33.760 align:middle line:84% come from all over the world to observe what language 00:02:33.760 --> 00:02:36.227 align:middle line:90% means for their own identities. 00:02:36.227 --> 00:02:38.560 align:middle line:84% [HAITIAN CREOLE SPEECH]:: Se te [?] moun Anpil yo fèt oz 00:02:38.560 --> 00:02:39.060 align:middle line:90% Etazini 00:02:39.060 --> 00:02:41.360 align:middle line:84% MICHEL DEGRAFF: Can you be Mauritian but yet not speak 00:02:41.360 --> 00:02:42.610 align:middle line:90% the Mauritian Creole language? 00:02:42.610 --> 00:02:46.810 align:middle line:84% Can you be Latino but not be fluent in Spanish? 00:02:46.810 --> 00:02:49.360 align:middle line:84% Can you be African American but yet not be 00:02:49.360 --> 00:02:52.990 align:middle line:84% fully fluent in so-called Black English? 00:02:52.990 --> 00:02:55.870 align:middle line:84% So those were questions that they themselves brought in. 00:02:55.870 --> 00:02:59.080 align:middle line:84% Then what I ask them to do as the very first exercise was 00:02:59.080 --> 00:03:02.320 align:middle line:84% to write what I called a linguistic biography. 00:03:02.320 --> 00:03:04.810 align:middle line:84% And actually, I got this hint from a dear friend 00:03:04.810 --> 00:03:08.290 align:middle line:84% and colleague, Professor Anne Charity Hudley, 00:03:08.290 --> 00:03:10.150 align:middle line:84% and Charity actually shared with me 00:03:10.150 --> 00:03:11.532 align:middle line:90% her own linguistic biography. 00:03:11.532 --> 00:03:13.240 align:middle line:84% When I read that, I realized how powerful 00:03:13.240 --> 00:03:16.900 align:middle line:84% it was to read about her own growing up in terms 00:03:16.900 --> 00:03:19.900 align:middle line:90% of language, ethnicity, race. 00:03:19.900 --> 00:03:22.998 align:middle line:84% So I thought that I would ask students something similar. 00:03:22.998 --> 00:03:25.290 align:middle line:84% SARAH HANSEN: The connection between language and power 00:03:25.290 --> 00:03:27.310 align:middle line:90% is highlighted in this course. 00:03:27.310 --> 00:03:30.270 align:middle line:84% A lot of what comes through in students' language biographies 00:03:30.270 --> 00:03:32.970 align:middle line:84% and other assignments touches on power structures 00:03:32.970 --> 00:03:34.950 align:middle line:84% and the hierarchies that exist because 00:03:34.950 --> 00:03:39.180 align:middle line:84% of cultural misconceptions tied to language and also race. 00:03:39.180 --> 00:03:42.180 align:middle line:84% I asked Professor DeGraff if students brought misconceptions 00:03:42.180 --> 00:03:44.760 align:middle line:84% about Creole languages to the course, 00:03:44.760 --> 00:03:47.760 align:middle line:90% and how he unpacked them. 00:03:47.760 --> 00:03:49.960 align:middle line:84% [HAITIAN CREOLE SPEECH]:: Etidyan yo, 00:03:49.960 --> 00:03:51.370 align:middle line:90% yo kòmanse kou a avèk yon se... 00:03:51.370 --> 00:03:53.170 align:middle line:84% MICHEL DEGRAFF: So one way that we 00:03:53.170 --> 00:03:58.480 align:middle line:84% start by unpacking these misconceptions is by comparing 00:03:58.480 --> 00:04:00.760 align:middle line:84% attitudes towards languages with attitudes 00:04:00.760 --> 00:04:03.190 align:middle line:90% towards race and ethnicity. 00:04:03.190 --> 00:04:05.950 align:middle line:84% And what we get to see very quickly 00:04:05.950 --> 00:04:08.510 align:middle line:84% is that, in fact, there is perhaps 00:04:08.510 --> 00:04:10.420 align:middle line:84% as much misconceptions about language 00:04:10.420 --> 00:04:12.940 align:middle line:90% as there is about race. 00:04:12.940 --> 00:04:15.400 align:middle line:84% So they get to see very early in the course 00:04:15.400 --> 00:04:19.519 align:middle line:84% that language can be used as a proxy for race, 00:04:19.519 --> 00:04:23.110 align:middle line:84% though now it's impolite to say certain things about, say, 00:04:23.110 --> 00:04:26.110 align:middle line:90% black people or Asian people. 00:04:26.110 --> 00:04:30.280 align:middle line:84% Yet it's still polite to say negative things about language. 00:04:30.280 --> 00:04:31.950 align:middle line:84% And then at that point what we do, 00:04:31.950 --> 00:04:35.440 align:middle line:84% we introduce some basic linguistic analysis 00:04:35.440 --> 00:04:38.200 align:middle line:84% tools for them to be able to see that in terms 00:04:38.200 --> 00:04:40.840 align:middle line:84% of basic structure, there is nothing 00:04:40.840 --> 00:04:43.968 align:middle line:84% at all that is inferior about Creole languages. 00:04:43.968 --> 00:04:45.760 align:middle line:84% In fact, what we do from the very beginning 00:04:45.760 --> 00:04:47.890 align:middle line:84% is to show that structurally there 00:04:47.890 --> 00:04:50.900 align:middle line:84% are patterns both in the syntax or morphology of Creole 00:04:50.900 --> 00:04:54.070 align:middle line:84% languages that are quite similar to patterns 00:04:54.070 --> 00:04:57.400 align:middle line:84% in the syntax and history of English, of French, 00:04:57.400 --> 00:04:59.890 align:middle line:90% of Mandarin Chinese. 00:04:59.890 --> 00:05:03.980 align:middle line:84% So they quickly get a sense that empirically and theoretically, 00:05:03.980 --> 00:05:08.470 align:middle line:84% one cannot argue that Creole languages are any way lesser 00:05:08.470 --> 00:05:11.170 align:middle line:84% than non-Creole languages, the same way that there are no 00:05:11.170 --> 00:05:15.070 align:middle line:84% biological measures that would deem black people to be 00:05:15.070 --> 00:05:16.700 align:middle line:90% inferior to white people. 00:05:16.700 --> 00:05:18.730 align:middle line:84% So they get very quick to understand 00:05:18.730 --> 00:05:21.610 align:middle line:84% the power of this myth that often they themselves 00:05:21.610 --> 00:05:23.590 align:middle line:84% have brought along in terms of how 00:05:23.590 --> 00:05:25.265 align:middle line:90% they view different languages. 00:05:25.265 --> 00:05:27.140 align:middle line:84% In some cases Creole language, in other cases 00:05:27.140 --> 00:05:28.680 align:middle line:90% just even dialects of English. 00:05:28.680 --> 00:05:30.760 align:middle line:84% There is Southern English or Black English. 00:05:30.760 --> 00:05:32.590 align:middle line:84% Their attitudes are very demeaning 00:05:32.590 --> 00:05:36.280 align:middle line:84% towards those varieties that have no basis in science that 00:05:36.280 --> 00:05:38.440 align:middle line:84% are rooted in hierarchies of power, 00:05:38.440 --> 00:05:41.230 align:middle line:84% and they get to see that very quickly. 00:05:41.230 --> 00:05:44.140 align:middle line:84% This course, the core of it is discussions. 00:05:44.140 --> 00:05:47.390 align:middle line:84% And in order for the course to be successful, 00:05:47.390 --> 00:05:52.450 align:middle line:84% we have to be able to discuss very delicate personal issues 00:05:52.450 --> 00:05:54.760 align:middle line:84% in a very safe way and to be honest. 00:05:54.760 --> 00:05:57.690 align:middle line:84% It cannot be that students are afraid to reveal 00:05:57.690 --> 00:06:01.850 align:middle line:84% their positions on various topics including race, 00:06:01.850 --> 00:06:03.390 align:middle line:90% language, identity. 00:06:03.390 --> 00:06:05.830 align:middle line:84% And one way to do it is to, given 00:06:05.830 --> 00:06:07.878 align:middle line:84% that I had at the very beginning of the course-- 00:06:07.878 --> 00:06:10.045 align:middle line:84% I had the questionnaires about where they came from, 00:06:10.045 --> 00:06:12.940 align:middle line:84% what languages they spoke, where they grew up-- 00:06:12.940 --> 00:06:16.930 align:middle line:84% I was able to use that to trigger discussions. 00:06:16.930 --> 00:06:20.260 align:middle line:84% So if we read a text about authenticity, for example. 00:06:20.260 --> 00:06:22.910 align:middle line:84% If an African-- can you be an authentic writer 00:06:22.910 --> 00:06:24.580 align:middle line:84% if you write in English, for example? 00:06:24.580 --> 00:06:27.730 align:middle line:84% I knew that some of the students had dealt with this issue. 00:06:27.730 --> 00:06:29.920 align:middle line:84% For example, we had a student who, 00:06:29.920 --> 00:06:32.680 align:middle line:84% although she was black and Hispanic, 00:06:32.680 --> 00:06:35.350 align:middle line:84% she wasn't very fluent in Spanish. 00:06:35.350 --> 00:06:39.520 align:middle line:84% And she wasn't clear whether her not being fluent in Spanish 00:06:39.520 --> 00:06:41.210 align:middle line:90% made her any less Hispanic. 00:06:41.210 --> 00:06:41.710 align:middle line:90% You see? 00:06:41.710 --> 00:06:45.610 align:middle line:84% So I was able to use that, in order to trigger a discussion 00:06:45.610 --> 00:06:48.850 align:middle line:84% around this notion that we had read in this famous debate 00:06:48.850 --> 00:06:54.220 align:middle line:84% between Chinua Achebe and Ngugi wa Thiong'o about African 00:06:54.220 --> 00:06:55.060 align:middle line:90% writers. 00:06:55.060 --> 00:06:57.450 align:middle line:84% Can a writer be authentically African 00:06:57.450 --> 00:07:00.450 align:middle line:84% if they write in English, or French for that matter? 00:07:00.450 --> 00:07:04.400 align:middle line:84% So that was one way to trigger rich discussion. 00:07:04.400 --> 00:07:07.800 align:middle line:84% So the motive there was which discussions are best 00:07:07.800 --> 00:07:11.030 align:middle line:84% arrived at if we start from a personal basis 00:07:11.030 --> 00:07:14.980 align:middle line:84% where students are invested in trying to find an answer that 00:07:14.980 --> 00:07:18.070 align:middle line:84% can work for them in their personal lives or in 00:07:18.070 --> 00:07:20.260 align:middle line:84% the life of their families, their communities, 00:07:20.260 --> 00:07:22.708 align:middle line:90% their countries, et cetera. 00:07:22.708 --> 00:07:24.250 align:middle line:84% SARAH HANSEN: Another special feature 00:07:24.250 --> 00:07:26.840 align:middle line:84% of Professor DeGraff's course on OCW 00:07:26.840 --> 00:07:30.410 align:middle line:84% is that his Instructor Insights are available in both English 00:07:30.410 --> 00:07:32.120 align:middle line:90% and Haitian Creole. 00:07:32.120 --> 00:07:35.910 align:middle line:84% I asked him why it was important that he share in both languages 00:07:35.910 --> 00:07:37.627 align:middle line:90% how the course was taught. 00:07:37.627 --> 00:07:39.960 align:middle line:84% [HAITIAN CREOLE SPEECH]:: Pou mwen, se te vreman enpòtan 00:07:39.960 --> 00:07:41.360 align:middle line:84% MICHEL DEGRAFF: So it was very, I 00:07:41.360 --> 00:07:45.530 align:middle line:84% would say, crucial, for me to do this interview in both English 00:07:45.530 --> 00:07:50.750 align:middle line:84% and Creole, because I see Creole languages, even 00:07:50.750 --> 00:07:53.600 align:middle line:84% in the case of Haiti, or especially because of Haiti, 00:07:53.600 --> 00:07:58.700 align:middle line:84% as a particular revealing and clear test tube or case 00:07:58.700 --> 00:08:01.760 align:middle line:84% study to really show how language can 00:08:01.760 --> 00:08:06.170 align:middle line:84% be such a powerful tool, either for domination 00:08:06.170 --> 00:08:07.160 align:middle line:90% or for resistance. 00:08:07.160 --> 00:08:10.340 align:middle line:84% Either for oppression or for development. 00:08:10.340 --> 00:08:13.400 align:middle line:84% So I would love teachers who look at the course 00:08:13.400 --> 00:08:16.040 align:middle line:84% to see how they can adapt the content in order 00:08:16.040 --> 00:08:19.310 align:middle line:84% to address similar issues in their own community, 00:08:19.310 --> 00:08:21.260 align:middle line:84% because I think that what you see happening 00:08:21.260 --> 00:08:23.930 align:middle line:84% in the case of Creole languages also happens in the US, 00:08:23.930 --> 00:08:27.260 align:middle line:84% happens in Europe, in Latin America, in Africa-- 00:08:27.260 --> 00:08:32.240 align:middle line:84% where language is often used as this technology for domination 00:08:32.240 --> 00:08:33.950 align:middle line:90% or resistance. 00:08:33.950 --> 00:08:37.940 align:middle line:84% And I think this course gives some basic analytical tools 00:08:37.940 --> 00:08:40.520 align:middle line:84% to be able to analyze these patterns. 00:08:40.520 --> 00:08:43.159 align:middle line:84% And for me, it's also very important 00:08:43.159 --> 00:08:46.690 align:middle line:84% that teachers in Haiti and students in Haiti including, 00:08:46.690 --> 00:08:49.850 align:middle line:84% say, future leaders or policy makers, 00:08:49.850 --> 00:08:53.420 align:middle line:84% get to understand the discourse and the readings 00:08:53.420 --> 00:08:55.970 align:middle line:84% and to understand that Haiti could do so much 00:08:55.970 --> 00:08:59.150 align:middle line:84% better if teachers, students, leaders, 00:08:59.150 --> 00:09:03.050 align:middle line:84% had this awareness of how their own attitudes towards Creole 00:09:03.050 --> 00:09:07.490 align:middle line:84% versus French have played over centuries in keeping 00:09:07.490 --> 00:09:08.630 align:middle line:90% the country underdeveloped. 00:09:08.630 --> 00:09:12.590 align:middle line:84% And if they could get a better sense of the importance 00:09:12.590 --> 00:09:15.148 align:middle line:84% of language in education and development, 00:09:15.148 --> 00:09:17.190 align:middle line:84% then I think the country would do so much better. 00:09:17.190 --> 00:09:20.420 align:middle line:84% And for me, it's a key bottleneck 00:09:20.420 --> 00:09:22.220 align:middle line:84% that we have to go past in order to really 00:09:22.220 --> 00:09:26.180 align:middle line:84% be able to develop a nation-- is to be able to understand 00:09:26.180 --> 00:09:29.440 align:middle line:84% the history and the nature of your national-- 00:09:29.440 --> 00:09:32.210 align:middle line:84% your ancestral language-- and to be able to use it in a more 00:09:32.210 --> 00:09:33.630 align:middle line:90% systematic and productive way. 00:09:33.630 --> 00:09:36.047 align:middle line:84% If you cannot do that, there's no way that you can develop 00:09:36.047 --> 00:09:38.492 align:middle line:84% a whole nation that speaks that language. 00:09:38.492 --> 00:09:39.950 align:middle line:84% What the students get to understand 00:09:39.950 --> 00:09:42.440 align:middle line:84% at the end of the course is that we all 00:09:42.440 --> 00:09:45.140 align:middle line:84% hold dear certain attitudes about language. 00:09:45.140 --> 00:09:47.400 align:middle line:84% And some of these attitudes are positive for ourselves 00:09:47.400 --> 00:09:49.687 align:middle line:84% and for others, but oftentimes-- and this is actually 00:09:49.687 --> 00:09:52.270 align:middle line:84% one of the major issues that we discuss throughout the course, 00:09:52.270 --> 00:09:54.140 align:middle line:84% is that sometimes we have attitudes 00:09:54.140 --> 00:09:57.890 align:middle line:84% that have a negative impact, severe negative impact, 00:09:57.890 --> 00:09:59.630 align:middle line:90% on the lives of other people. 00:09:59.630 --> 00:10:02.892 align:middle line:84% The lives of, sometimes, entire communities and nations. 00:10:02.892 --> 00:10:04.850 align:middle line:84% So I hope throughout that students can actually 00:10:04.850 --> 00:10:07.965 align:middle line:84% take the theory that is in the course 00:10:07.965 --> 00:10:09.590 align:middle line:84% and see ways in which they can apply it 00:10:09.590 --> 00:10:11.780 align:middle line:84% to themselves, to their communities, 00:10:11.780 --> 00:10:13.100 align:middle line:90% to their countries. 00:10:13.100 --> 00:10:15.950 align:middle line:84% So some in the course of this class 00:10:15.950 --> 00:10:18.140 align:middle line:84% have applied what they've learned, 00:10:18.140 --> 00:10:22.130 align:middle line:84% and taking it outside, including volunteering in, say, there 00:10:22.130 --> 00:10:25.345 align:middle line:84% is a dual language program that's just started in Boston. 00:10:25.345 --> 00:10:28.010 align:middle line:84% It's a joint language program promoting 00:10:28.010 --> 00:10:30.860 align:middle line:84% the use of both Creole and English, 00:10:30.860 --> 00:10:34.130 align:middle line:84% and where students are immersed from kindergarten 00:10:34.130 --> 00:10:36.170 align:middle line:90% in both Creole and English. 00:10:36.170 --> 00:10:38.880 align:middle line:84% And now there's a student within the class, my class, 00:10:38.880 --> 00:10:42.530 align:middle line:84% who's volunteering in that classroom for kindergartners 00:10:42.530 --> 00:10:46.160 align:middle line:84% who are learning in Creole and in English. 00:10:46.160 --> 00:10:48.080 align:middle line:90% And to me, that's a-- 00:10:48.080 --> 00:10:51.080 align:middle line:84% it's a dream, because it's one case where 00:10:51.080 --> 00:10:54.500 align:middle line:84% what you learn in the course can be directly applied 00:10:54.500 --> 00:10:57.600 align:middle line:84% in the real world context, which can make actual positive change 00:10:57.600 --> 00:10:58.850 align:middle line:90% in the life of these children. 00:10:58.850 --> 00:11:03.443 align:middle line:90% 00:11:03.443 --> 00:11:05.860 align:middle line:84% SARAH HANSEN: Professor DeGraff shares additional thoughts 00:11:05.860 --> 00:11:07.930 align:middle line:84% on teaching Creole languages and Caribbean 00:11:07.930 --> 00:11:09.970 align:middle line:84% identities within the instructor insight 00:11:09.970 --> 00:11:12.610 align:middle line:90% section of his OCW course. 00:11:12.610 --> 00:11:14.770 align:middle line:84% You can find these dual language videos, 00:11:14.770 --> 00:11:17.290 align:middle line:84% along with his openly licensed teaching materials, 00:11:17.290 --> 00:11:20.470 align:middle line:90% at ocw.mit.edu. 00:11:20.470 --> 00:11:22.990 align:middle line:84% And if you use these materials in your own teaching, 00:11:22.990 --> 00:11:24.550 align:middle line:90% we'd love to hear about it. 00:11:24.550 --> 00:11:28.060 align:middle line:84% Use the contact link in the show notes to share your story. 00:11:28.060 --> 00:11:33.690 align:middle line:84% Until next time, I'm Sarah Hansen from MIT OpenCourseWare. 00:11:33.690 --> 00:11:42.000 align:middle line:90%