1 00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:02,520 The following content is provided under a Creative 2 00:00:02,520 --> 00:00:03,970 Commons license. 3 00:00:03,970 --> 00:00:06,360 Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare 4 00:00:06,360 --> 00:00:10,660 continue to offer high quality educational resources for free. 5 00:00:10,660 --> 00:00:13,350 To make a donation or view additional materials 6 00:00:13,350 --> 00:00:17,190 from hundreds of MIT courses, visit MIT OpenCourseWare 7 00:00:17,190 --> 00:00:18,320 at ocw.mit.edu. 8 00:00:28,440 --> 00:00:32,430 JULIAN BEINART: It's going to be a strange new rhythm, not 9 00:00:32,430 --> 00:00:37,970 turning up here on Tuesdays and Thursdays endlessly. 10 00:00:37,970 --> 00:00:41,220 It's been an incredible saga. 11 00:00:48,110 --> 00:00:53,560 We have a minute, because Thursday will not 12 00:00:53,560 --> 00:00:56,170 be a good time for doing it. 13 00:00:56,170 --> 00:00:59,470 I'd like to spend five minutes or 10 minutes with you. 14 00:01:03,000 --> 00:01:07,920 I can't ask for advice as to how to do it better. 15 00:01:07,920 --> 00:01:11,430 Thank God I won't have to. 16 00:01:11,430 --> 00:01:16,470 But I'd be interested in your general comments 17 00:01:16,470 --> 00:01:20,460 about what we tried to do. 18 00:01:20,460 --> 00:01:22,370 I'd like to pass it on, too. 19 00:01:27,550 --> 00:01:32,340 Since 1956, this class has been taught every year. 20 00:01:32,340 --> 00:01:36,045 That's 44-- 57 years. 21 00:01:38,750 --> 00:01:43,280 After 57 years, it should be retired, which it is. 22 00:01:43,280 --> 00:01:46,670 Whether it will continue in any form or another 23 00:01:46,670 --> 00:01:48,590 is not up to me. 24 00:01:48,590 --> 00:01:52,100 There's a rule, thank God, where that if you retire, 25 00:01:52,100 --> 00:01:54,170 your successors are independent. 26 00:01:56,870 --> 00:02:00,910 They have to bear the burden of their predecessors. 27 00:02:00,910 --> 00:02:03,050 And fortunately, this class will be 28 00:02:03,050 --> 00:02:06,380 recorded for archival purposes, so they 29 00:02:06,380 --> 00:02:08,375 won't be able to get rid of me that easily. 30 00:02:14,500 --> 00:02:17,980 Let's just spend a few minutes having 31 00:02:17,980 --> 00:02:26,020 a little discussion about this enormous problematic area 32 00:02:26,020 --> 00:02:31,450 dealing with the non-European, non-American world, 33 00:02:31,450 --> 00:02:34,000 and non-selective Asian world. 34 00:02:36,950 --> 00:02:41,880 It's called, in some terms, the developing world. 35 00:02:41,880 --> 00:02:46,090 Now, the new name for it is the Global South. 36 00:02:46,090 --> 00:02:51,700 That is the term which has been appropriated by the newest 37 00:02:51,700 --> 00:02:58,870 attempt to galvanize international and professional 38 00:02:58,870 --> 00:03:04,435 interest in an apparently new way of doing things. 39 00:03:09,330 --> 00:03:16,410 You must recall that I said that 1950 was the first time 40 00:03:16,410 --> 00:03:17,820 a book in English-- 41 00:03:17,820 --> 00:03:19,920 and probably in any language-- 42 00:03:19,920 --> 00:03:23,310 appeared on the subject of the so-called world 43 00:03:23,310 --> 00:03:26,640 of international poverty. 44 00:03:26,640 --> 00:03:30,750 This was not Freidrich Engels writing about Manchester, 45 00:03:30,750 --> 00:03:33,420 or what could be seen as its equivalent. 46 00:03:33,420 --> 00:03:39,660 But Charlie Abrams at MIT was a lawyer who had worked in India, 47 00:03:39,660 --> 00:03:43,780 and decided to come back here and write about it. 48 00:03:43,780 --> 00:03:48,960 He was a New Yorker writing about the emerging problems 49 00:03:48,960 --> 00:03:50,805 of population growth and poverty. 50 00:03:56,360 --> 00:04:02,660 It's curious that when looking back 51 00:04:02,660 --> 00:04:14,770 on the situation in Manchester in 1830, 52 00:04:14,770 --> 00:04:21,070 when the young German could write about and analyze 53 00:04:21,070 --> 00:04:29,560 the industrial poverty, that the sudden leap of economy 54 00:04:29,560 --> 00:04:38,710 had taken in Great Britain only since some 80 years before, 55 00:04:38,710 --> 00:04:43,000 if we count 1750 as the beginning date. 56 00:04:46,900 --> 00:04:48,730 Engels and Marx were-- 57 00:04:48,730 --> 00:04:52,810 Engels particularly was dissatisfied with the pace 58 00:04:52,810 --> 00:04:56,710 of recalibration in England. 59 00:04:56,710 --> 00:05:00,160 He dismissed the moves of the Chartist Group 60 00:05:00,160 --> 00:05:03,280 as being ineffective. 61 00:05:03,280 --> 00:05:09,610 The British move first through charity, then 62 00:05:09,610 --> 00:05:13,300 through the state and the nation, 63 00:05:13,300 --> 00:05:17,220 paying attention to what is called social housing. 64 00:05:17,220 --> 00:05:20,540 It was definitive. 65 00:05:20,540 --> 00:05:23,140 It was the first nation in the world 66 00:05:23,140 --> 00:05:26,050 to tackle this problem systematically-- not 67 00:05:26,050 --> 00:05:27,430 systematically. 68 00:05:27,430 --> 00:05:29,410 Partially. 69 00:05:29,410 --> 00:05:34,540 But had Engels waited around in England until today, 70 00:05:34,540 --> 00:05:38,830 he might have seen that it had measures of success, 71 00:05:38,830 --> 00:05:42,880 despite Maggie Thatcher's involvement 72 00:05:42,880 --> 00:05:48,730 in the interim over a period. 73 00:05:48,730 --> 00:05:51,570 And keep on remembering that the British are 74 00:05:51,570 --> 00:05:54,370 slow but determined. 75 00:05:57,130 --> 00:06:02,590 I quoted sir Joseph Paxton, the builder of the Crystal 76 00:06:02,590 --> 00:06:09,340 Palace, the gardener who said, we do things 77 00:06:09,340 --> 00:06:12,830 by common sense and technology. 78 00:06:12,830 --> 00:06:15,220 Almost everything was commonsensical, 79 00:06:15,220 --> 00:06:23,700 and even in regard to science and the development 80 00:06:23,700 --> 00:06:28,500 of massive waves of technological innovation 81 00:06:28,500 --> 00:06:30,480 the world had ever seen. 82 00:06:30,480 --> 00:06:37,200 Above all, I remind you that what happened 83 00:06:37,200 --> 00:06:44,780 was the first destruction of the Malthusian trap, which 84 00:06:44,780 --> 00:06:46,960 is fundamental. 85 00:06:46,960 --> 00:06:48,830 As urbanists, you should remember 86 00:06:48,830 --> 00:06:53,840 as one of the key factors in human development. 87 00:06:56,350 --> 00:07:00,880 In my little talk on Friday, I'll start with, I think, 88 00:07:00,880 --> 00:07:04,780 the first, and that's the increase 89 00:07:04,780 --> 00:07:12,910 in human brain size from 400 cubic centimeters to 1,450, 90 00:07:12,910 --> 00:07:15,610 and what caused that. 91 00:07:15,610 --> 00:07:19,840 The Malthusian trap, you will recall, 92 00:07:19,840 --> 00:07:26,240 equated population growth with death. 93 00:07:26,240 --> 00:07:28,620 The stable size of population was all 94 00:07:28,620 --> 00:07:38,580 that agricultural innovation could supply, or could 95 00:07:38,580 --> 00:07:40,680 forestall. 96 00:07:40,680 --> 00:07:45,600 And the sudden capacity to unleash a population 97 00:07:45,600 --> 00:07:54,660 to move relatively freely with the advent of the larger 98 00:07:54,660 --> 00:07:58,920 migration patterns that I think that we see now, where-- 99 00:08:04,050 --> 00:08:06,810 anyway. 100 00:08:06,810 --> 00:08:10,410 London became the largest city in the world 101 00:08:10,410 --> 00:08:11,635 in a very quick manner. 102 00:08:16,630 --> 00:08:18,560 We're not lecturing about London, 103 00:08:18,560 --> 00:08:21,320 although it's tempting to recall London. 104 00:08:21,320 --> 00:08:22,475 Such a great story. 105 00:08:27,660 --> 00:08:32,299 Engles took to the road. 106 00:08:32,299 --> 00:08:35,909 He and Marx were in Paris in 1848. 107 00:08:35,909 --> 00:08:41,700 And then Engels spiriting himself all over Europe, 108 00:08:41,700 --> 00:08:49,530 nurturing, evolving Marxism, until eventually, of course, 109 00:08:49,530 --> 00:08:58,310 after his death, Russia succeeded in attempting 110 00:08:58,310 --> 00:09:01,550 to transform the world. 111 00:09:01,550 --> 00:09:05,690 That transformation was built on the image 112 00:09:05,690 --> 00:09:06,800 of industrial poverty. 113 00:09:10,230 --> 00:09:14,640 No advertisement-- I mean, the book 114 00:09:14,640 --> 00:09:21,620 Sotsgorod, written by Milyutin, the Russian architect 115 00:09:21,620 --> 00:09:24,980 and bureaucrat, starts off with a photograph 116 00:09:24,980 --> 00:09:28,970 of the industrial city, smoke belching out of pipes, 117 00:09:28,970 --> 00:09:32,820 workers disenfranchised. 118 00:09:32,820 --> 00:09:35,640 I can't think of anything else that 119 00:09:35,640 --> 00:09:48,575 forced the publicity of the attempt to nationalize poverty. 120 00:09:57,780 --> 00:10:03,410 The story of the so-called third world is different. 121 00:10:07,220 --> 00:10:10,070 The battle against poverty in Europe 122 00:10:10,070 --> 00:10:16,780 was on the basis of a history of development. 123 00:10:16,780 --> 00:10:20,265 There are very poor people in Vienna today. 124 00:10:23,420 --> 00:10:30,640 Vienna, since the liberals took over from the royalty in 1870, 125 00:10:30,640 --> 00:10:39,250 1860s, went through various exercises, including the rabid, 126 00:10:39,250 --> 00:10:44,020 the rampant, period of Red Vienna in the 1920s after 127 00:10:44,020 --> 00:10:51,220 the '14-'18 war, which produced the Karl Marx-Hof, 128 00:10:51,220 --> 00:10:54,010 Matteotti-Hof. 129 00:10:54,010 --> 00:10:59,860 It's interesting that the reaction of the major cities 130 00:10:59,860 --> 00:11:03,040 that we looked at, the five major cities, 131 00:11:03,040 --> 00:11:07,920 each produced a specific housing type. 132 00:11:07,920 --> 00:11:10,950 London produced the residential square. 133 00:11:10,950 --> 00:11:14,430 Paris produced the boulevard house, the Haussmannian 134 00:11:14,430 --> 00:11:15,990 boulevard house. 135 00:11:15,990 --> 00:11:21,180 Vienna produced the [INAUDIBLE],, the first large palace-like 136 00:11:21,180 --> 00:11:23,725 condominium building, and the hof. 137 00:11:26,270 --> 00:11:29,000 Barcelona produced the square block 138 00:11:29,000 --> 00:11:33,080 of Cerda and the Ensanche. 139 00:11:33,080 --> 00:11:37,430 So it's extraordinary that every major attempt 140 00:11:37,430 --> 00:11:40,550 to reformulate the form of the city 141 00:11:40,550 --> 00:11:45,045 produces a new housing type in its wake. 142 00:11:50,040 --> 00:11:54,060 Chicago-- I don't know what it did. 143 00:11:54,060 --> 00:11:57,750 Chicago probably didn't produce a housing type. 144 00:12:00,330 --> 00:12:05,140 The genesis of the American suburban house 145 00:12:05,140 --> 00:12:11,775 is old and starts with the British conquest. 146 00:12:17,780 --> 00:12:20,570 So [INAUDIBLE] we switch back and then 147 00:12:20,570 --> 00:12:25,760 analogically to the condition of poverty 148 00:12:25,760 --> 00:12:27,580 in the developing world. 149 00:12:32,560 --> 00:12:37,660 Of all the demonstrations of international cooperation, 150 00:12:37,660 --> 00:12:43,900 I argued that the Olympic Games stands out as the most 151 00:12:43,900 --> 00:12:47,350 regular and beneficent. 152 00:12:47,350 --> 00:12:51,340 Nobody objects to the Olympic games. 153 00:12:51,340 --> 00:12:54,260 They should have in '36, but they didn't. 154 00:12:54,260 --> 00:12:56,020 Certainly, the Americans didn't. 155 00:13:03,930 --> 00:13:10,710 The Olympic Games has been held, in all of its years since 1896, 156 00:13:10,710 --> 00:13:15,690 only once in a city in which the majority of people are poor. 157 00:13:15,690 --> 00:13:17,700 That's Mexico. 158 00:13:17,700 --> 00:13:23,360 It's 1968. 159 00:13:23,360 --> 00:13:26,180 The funding of the Olympic Games is either 160 00:13:26,180 --> 00:13:31,530 in favor of a national economic gain, 161 00:13:31,530 --> 00:13:37,290 advertising yourself on the international economic platform 162 00:13:37,290 --> 00:13:42,810 or, at best, gratifying a national impulse 163 00:13:42,810 --> 00:13:49,440 to be worldly and international and, even more at best, 164 00:13:49,440 --> 00:13:54,750 to satisfy perhaps a plangent ambition in all of us 165 00:13:54,750 --> 00:14:00,800 to be part of a good world, which is seldom available, 166 00:14:00,800 --> 00:14:05,390 where people run in peace against each other 167 00:14:05,390 --> 00:14:11,330 as they did in 1896 in Athens. 168 00:14:11,330 --> 00:14:14,210 But the options for the developing world are few, 169 00:14:14,210 --> 00:14:19,370 because of two meta-conditions-- 170 00:14:19,370 --> 00:14:28,540 first of all, the residue of colonialism 171 00:14:28,540 --> 00:14:35,320 and the emancipation of wealth from sources such as Mexico, 172 00:14:35,320 --> 00:14:40,210 from sources such as India through the cotton trade, 173 00:14:40,210 --> 00:14:48,010 from almost every African country, gold and diamonds 174 00:14:48,010 --> 00:14:55,460 and uranium from South Africa; secondly, 175 00:14:55,460 --> 00:14:58,640 particularly in Africa, the incipient tradition 176 00:14:58,640 --> 00:14:59,960 of tribalism. 177 00:15:03,980 --> 00:15:09,480 Tribes were-- the world was born in Africa. 178 00:15:12,500 --> 00:15:19,640 The first species of protohuman was discovered 1,000 miles 179 00:15:19,640 --> 00:15:22,340 from where I was born. 180 00:15:22,340 --> 00:15:30,540 So I'm one of the ancestors, Australopithecus africanus-- 181 00:15:30,540 --> 00:15:32,490 that's 400 million years ago. 182 00:15:35,160 --> 00:15:39,490 Cities have only been going for 20,000. 183 00:15:39,490 --> 00:15:43,410 What fraction of 400 million is 20,000? 184 00:15:43,410 --> 00:15:45,990 It's a tiny percentage. 185 00:15:45,990 --> 00:15:49,600 Could somebody calculate it? 186 00:15:49,600 --> 00:15:54,158 20,000 out of 400 million-- 187 00:15:54,158 --> 00:15:54,825 what percentage? 188 00:15:54,825 --> 00:15:57,994 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] is one in 200. 189 00:15:57,994 --> 00:15:58,770 [INAUDIBLE] 190 00:15:58,770 --> 00:15:59,770 JULIAN BEINART: It's 5%. 191 00:15:59,770 --> 00:16:01,120 AUDIENCE: 0.5%. 192 00:16:01,120 --> 00:16:02,960 JULIAN BEINART: 0.5%. 193 00:16:02,960 --> 00:16:03,460 Yeah. 194 00:16:06,060 --> 00:16:08,700 I conclude from that we've not even 195 00:16:08,700 --> 00:16:12,570 started sorting out urbanism. 196 00:16:12,570 --> 00:16:13,920 We've got a long way to go. 197 00:16:13,920 --> 00:16:17,010 That should satisfy all of you who are young enough 198 00:16:17,010 --> 00:16:20,220 to rejoice in the finding. 199 00:16:27,600 --> 00:16:32,120 Tribalism is difficult-- 200 00:16:32,120 --> 00:16:34,730 AUDIENCE: How much do you think that urbanism 201 00:16:34,730 --> 00:16:38,628 will attain a sort of maturity or homeostasis 202 00:16:38,628 --> 00:16:40,420 because of the population rather than time? 203 00:16:43,070 --> 00:16:46,490 JULIAN BEINART: Population projection is uncertain. 204 00:16:46,490 --> 00:16:51,620 I'm going to read you a number of quotes from various sources 205 00:16:51,620 --> 00:16:52,990 about this phenomenon. 206 00:16:55,850 --> 00:17:01,982 The one that I find most dramatic touches 207 00:17:01,982 --> 00:17:03,065 on what you've just asked. 208 00:17:12,230 --> 00:17:14,660 "Urbanization in developing countries 209 00:17:14,660 --> 00:17:18,770 may be the single greatest change in this century. 210 00:17:18,770 --> 00:17:21,950 It is projected that developing countries will triple 211 00:17:21,950 --> 00:17:28,160 their built-up urban area between 2000 and 2030 212 00:17:28,160 --> 00:17:34,490 from 200,000 square kilometers to 600,000 square kilometers. 213 00:17:34,490 --> 00:17:38,570 These added 400 square kilometers constructed 214 00:17:38,570 --> 00:17:42,830 in just 30 years equal the world's built-up urban area 215 00:17:42,830 --> 00:17:45,176 in 2000. 216 00:17:45,176 --> 00:17:48,500 One could say humans are building a whole new world 217 00:17:48,500 --> 00:17:53,090 at about 10 times the speed in countries with severe resource 218 00:17:53,090 --> 00:17:54,170 constraints-- 219 00:17:54,170 --> 00:17:58,735 natural, fiscal, administrative, and technical." 220 00:17:58,735 --> 00:18:05,640 Now, if this is correct, it's impossible. 221 00:18:05,640 --> 00:18:09,000 Even China cannot build at this speed, 222 00:18:09,000 --> 00:18:12,990 nor does the developing world, by its nature, 223 00:18:12,990 --> 00:18:15,410 have all of the resources to do it. 224 00:18:23,700 --> 00:18:28,090 Slum population in the world is expected-- 225 00:18:28,090 --> 00:18:31,920 is now stated at about 1 billion people 226 00:18:31,920 --> 00:18:35,540 and is stated to double within the next 25 years. 227 00:18:46,410 --> 00:18:51,080 Let me just-- perhaps I should have gone through some 228 00:18:51,080 --> 00:18:54,100 of this material with you. 229 00:18:54,100 --> 00:18:55,280 I always forget. 230 00:19:12,530 --> 00:19:15,380 The world's largest cities is one 231 00:19:15,380 --> 00:19:25,660 of the indices of not very much other than population size. 232 00:19:25,660 --> 00:19:30,580 New York was the largest city in the world in 1950. 233 00:19:30,580 --> 00:19:32,290 It's now sixth. 234 00:19:32,290 --> 00:19:35,980 That's in the year 2000. 235 00:19:35,980 --> 00:19:40,120 Of course, this is assuming that these measurements 236 00:19:40,120 --> 00:19:42,010 are constant. 237 00:19:42,010 --> 00:19:44,440 What constitutes New York I don't know. 238 00:19:44,440 --> 00:19:48,170 As far as the standard metropolitan area, 239 00:19:48,170 --> 00:19:54,440 I don't know how that compares to Kolkata's area. 240 00:19:54,440 --> 00:19:58,970 But you can see the major European cities, New York, 241 00:19:58,970 --> 00:20:13,750 London, Rhine-Ruhr, Paris, Chicago, 242 00:20:13,750 --> 00:20:21,340 have diminished in relative size as the growth of cities has 243 00:20:21,340 --> 00:20:25,030 taken place in Latin America and Asia-- 244 00:20:25,030 --> 00:20:28,720 not yet significantly in Africa-- 245 00:20:28,720 --> 00:20:30,250 certainly very large cities. 246 00:20:42,980 --> 00:20:46,750 The second two pages are just cuttings from newspapers. 247 00:20:50,430 --> 00:20:55,320 We saw John Snow's 1854 discovery 248 00:20:55,320 --> 00:21:00,540 that cholera was waterborne and not miasmic in nature. 249 00:21:00,540 --> 00:21:05,490 Here you see cholera now being used as an index 250 00:21:05,490 --> 00:21:10,650 to determine 19th century conditions. 251 00:21:10,650 --> 00:21:13,560 Feeding on 19th century conditions cholera, 252 00:21:13,560 --> 00:21:15,511 spreads in Latin America. 253 00:21:20,330 --> 00:21:24,050 Another phenomenon from this world, "A Lovely Madness-- 254 00:21:24,050 --> 00:21:27,920 Argentina Builds New Capital in Patagonia." 255 00:21:27,920 --> 00:21:30,980 They didn't build the capital, but they proposed 256 00:21:30,980 --> 00:21:33,920 building a new capital. 257 00:21:33,920 --> 00:21:43,410 One of the urbanistic outcomes of large population growth 258 00:21:43,410 --> 00:21:46,470 and independence has been the notion 259 00:21:46,470 --> 00:21:51,300 that you need to establish your status through the building 260 00:21:51,300 --> 00:21:52,060 of a new capital. 261 00:21:56,750 --> 00:22:00,170 These have become famous icons in the world-- 262 00:22:00,170 --> 00:22:10,030 Brasilia, par excellence, but less significantly, 263 00:22:10,030 --> 00:22:14,560 Chandigarh, in the Punjab, after the division 264 00:22:14,560 --> 00:22:20,130 between Pakistan and India left the Punjab without a capital. 265 00:22:22,835 --> 00:22:23,933 AUDIENCE: Islamabad. 266 00:22:23,933 --> 00:22:24,850 JULIAN BEINART: Sorry? 267 00:22:24,850 --> 00:22:26,580 AUDIENCE: Islamabad in Pakistan. 268 00:22:26,580 --> 00:22:29,220 JULIAN BEINART: Islamabad in Pakistan, yes-- 269 00:22:29,220 --> 00:22:34,320 but the Indian part of what remains of the Punjab. 270 00:22:37,840 --> 00:22:44,080 I did some work on Chandigarh with Charles Correa. 271 00:22:44,080 --> 00:22:50,620 We published a piece in a book we edited on Chandigarh, 272 00:22:50,620 --> 00:22:52,225 published in India in English. 273 00:22:56,470 --> 00:22:58,630 The story of Chandigarh is very much 274 00:22:58,630 --> 00:23:05,290 the story of trying to find an appropriate form 275 00:23:05,290 --> 00:23:10,570 for a post-colonial post-native city. 276 00:23:14,540 --> 00:23:16,640 Gandhi didn't leave any instructions 277 00:23:16,640 --> 00:23:18,676 on how to build cities. 278 00:23:18,676 --> 00:23:21,260 Neither did Marx. 279 00:23:21,260 --> 00:23:26,540 The great minds of social change didn't take cities 280 00:23:26,540 --> 00:23:27,950 into account. 281 00:23:27,950 --> 00:23:31,850 Nor Sydney were they building belaboring questions 282 00:23:31,850 --> 00:23:34,130 of architectural form-- 283 00:23:34,130 --> 00:23:38,650 they were too busy doing other things. 284 00:23:38,650 --> 00:23:47,440 Chandigarh emerged as a complex mindset somewhere 285 00:23:47,440 --> 00:23:56,650 between Indian leaders imagining India to be on a progress 286 00:23:56,650 --> 00:24:01,330 transect towards modernism. 287 00:24:01,330 --> 00:24:05,890 There, after all, were few Indian architects old enough 288 00:24:05,890 --> 00:24:10,960 to be practicing significantly at the time. 289 00:24:10,960 --> 00:24:14,590 They chose British architects, who 290 00:24:14,590 --> 00:24:18,170 in turn said they weren't capable of doing the work 291 00:24:18,170 --> 00:24:21,790 and recommended a French architect by the name of Le 292 00:24:21,790 --> 00:24:27,880 Corbusier, who came to India, traveled around India, 293 00:24:27,880 --> 00:24:33,880 and decided on a sectoral plan, which 294 00:24:33,880 --> 00:24:38,980 he had played with in Bogota before coming to India, 295 00:24:38,980 --> 00:24:43,630 without telling anybody, and evolved 296 00:24:43,630 --> 00:24:52,570 a plan which is based on a series of five highway systems, 297 00:24:52,570 --> 00:24:56,540 although there were no cars in India at the time. 298 00:24:56,540 --> 00:25:01,060 I checked on the car population of India in 1950. 299 00:25:01,060 --> 00:25:06,805 It was close to zero, except for a few thousand cars. 300 00:25:12,000 --> 00:25:20,710 Chandigarh also didn't look into the future 301 00:25:20,710 --> 00:25:28,930 as far as how people would develop from a designed point. 302 00:25:32,860 --> 00:25:38,170 First of all, we have no way of dealing yet 303 00:25:38,170 --> 00:25:41,780 with immigration as a result of building an economic growth 304 00:25:41,780 --> 00:25:42,280 point. 305 00:25:44,962 --> 00:25:48,550 There's an informal sector of Chandigarh-- 306 00:25:48,550 --> 00:25:52,420 both in Chandigarh and in the neighboring towns-- 307 00:25:52,420 --> 00:25:54,400 which outnumbers Chandigarh now. 308 00:25:57,040 --> 00:25:59,335 Land control is weak. 309 00:26:02,860 --> 00:26:08,270 Although the national government superintends over Chandigarh, 310 00:26:08,270 --> 00:26:14,080 it sells land illegally north of the Capitol Complex 311 00:26:14,080 --> 00:26:18,340 and in parts of the famous drawings of Corbusier 312 00:26:18,340 --> 00:26:20,605 in the Himalayas in the distance. 313 00:26:24,090 --> 00:26:26,480 I can go on at length about Chandigarh. 314 00:26:30,330 --> 00:26:35,130 There is no attempt to look at the genius of Indian urbanism, 315 00:26:35,130 --> 00:26:37,440 native Indian urbanism. 316 00:26:37,440 --> 00:26:41,760 Nobody looked at Jaipur and tried to make sense of Jaipur. 317 00:26:41,760 --> 00:26:45,690 Everything was to be, in the grasp of modernism, 318 00:26:45,690 --> 00:26:48,360 a modern project. 319 00:26:48,360 --> 00:26:51,870 At least Louis Kahn, when he went to build in Dhaka, 320 00:26:51,870 --> 00:26:57,380 looked at the way bricklayers laid bricks and built 321 00:26:57,380 --> 00:27:02,430 horizontal stripes in relation to the terraces that 322 00:27:02,430 --> 00:27:03,890 were finished each day. 323 00:27:08,400 --> 00:27:17,850 Chandigarh is now a center which is historic in nature, much 324 00:27:17,850 --> 00:27:23,550 like an Italian hill town, and a periphery, which is a chaotic, 325 00:27:23,550 --> 00:27:24,360 apparently. 326 00:27:26,940 --> 00:27:31,560 It's two cities-- the one envisioned 327 00:27:31,560 --> 00:27:40,890 by a single man and his cousin, the other 328 00:27:40,890 --> 00:27:47,760 built by the free will allowed. 329 00:27:47,760 --> 00:27:53,250 Some of Corbusier's regulations still stand today. 330 00:27:53,250 --> 00:27:58,320 They are meaningless in relation to a bicycle shack 331 00:27:58,320 --> 00:27:59,490 on the periphery. 332 00:28:03,620 --> 00:28:07,280 Anyway, that's so much for Chandigarh. 333 00:28:07,280 --> 00:28:14,390 Chandigarh will stand as an emblem of India's attempt 334 00:28:14,390 --> 00:28:17,450 to calibrate itself. 335 00:28:17,450 --> 00:28:21,080 And in that sense, one should feel proud of it. 336 00:28:21,080 --> 00:28:23,030 It could have been better. 337 00:28:23,030 --> 00:28:27,020 A generation later, some Indian architects 338 00:28:27,020 --> 00:28:28,390 would have done the same thing. 339 00:28:31,300 --> 00:28:33,140 There are buildings that are going 340 00:28:33,140 --> 00:28:35,360 to stand for a long time-- 341 00:28:35,360 --> 00:28:39,240 the law courts, for instance-- 342 00:28:39,240 --> 00:28:46,360 whereas the governor's palace was never built, leaving the-- 343 00:28:46,360 --> 00:28:50,870 oh, I'm getting into too much detail. 344 00:28:50,870 --> 00:28:55,040 You know Chandigarh, or you should know it well. 345 00:29:07,290 --> 00:29:12,870 Next page is the page of optimism from a Toronto 346 00:29:12,870 --> 00:29:16,290 newspaper arguing that things are 347 00:29:16,290 --> 00:29:17,790 going very well in the world-- 348 00:29:21,030 --> 00:29:31,810 sharing graphs of decline in warfare; falling fertility-- 349 00:29:36,010 --> 00:29:42,380 not in the poorest countries, but in inhabited countries; 350 00:29:42,380 --> 00:29:45,932 change in life expectancy rising everywhere-- 351 00:29:49,240 --> 00:29:55,800 sub-Saharan Africa, they're still under 50; 352 00:29:55,800 --> 00:29:59,830 the environment shows an enormous drop in the production 353 00:29:59,830 --> 00:30:01,300 of chlorofluorocarbons. 354 00:30:05,570 --> 00:30:18,360 At best, the Third World does fairly well-- 355 00:30:21,470 --> 00:30:22,210 and so on. 356 00:30:28,680 --> 00:30:32,055 Next page gives a projected number 357 00:30:32,055 --> 00:30:35,430 of slum dwellers by region. 358 00:30:45,630 --> 00:30:51,390 Next page shows projections for world population-- 359 00:30:51,390 --> 00:31:03,960 population growth losing 25% in Eastern Europe. 360 00:31:03,960 --> 00:31:07,020 As you go from east to west in Europe, 361 00:31:07,020 --> 00:31:12,140 population growth loses drastically 362 00:31:12,140 --> 00:31:17,320 to the time we get to England, where it's relatively stable-- 363 00:31:17,320 --> 00:31:23,970 Northern Europe, Western Europe losing 0.2%. 364 00:31:23,970 --> 00:31:31,370 At the same time, the major population growth in the United 365 00:31:31,370 --> 00:31:38,210 States, plus 33%, is due to migration more 366 00:31:38,210 --> 00:31:41,840 than anything else. 367 00:31:41,840 --> 00:31:48,030 The worst conditions are in Western Africa, plus 127%-- 368 00:31:48,030 --> 00:32:01,530 122%; middle Africa, plus 175%; South Central Asia, plus 55%; 369 00:32:01,530 --> 00:32:08,475 Western Asia, plus 79%; Japan, minus 17%. 370 00:32:17,800 --> 00:32:21,190 People migrate to cities because there's a better chance 371 00:32:21,190 --> 00:32:23,030 in life than where they are. 372 00:32:23,030 --> 00:32:26,200 They're not dumb. 373 00:32:26,200 --> 00:32:30,550 The notion that people are animals and behave foolishly 374 00:32:30,550 --> 00:32:34,600 in going to cities is a foolish proposition. 375 00:32:34,600 --> 00:32:39,070 The life lottery is large in cities. 376 00:32:39,070 --> 00:32:41,770 It's always been that way. 377 00:32:41,770 --> 00:32:45,860 Your daughter can go to school and marry a rich man. 378 00:32:45,860 --> 00:32:49,900 It's unlikely to happen in a village. 379 00:32:49,900 --> 00:32:53,170 There's a sanctity numbers which you cannot deny. 380 00:32:56,500 --> 00:33:03,880 Number two-- staying in the rural areas is no blessing. 381 00:33:03,880 --> 00:33:09,400 If only the rural areas is what our romantic vision of nature 382 00:33:09,400 --> 00:33:11,470 suggests-- 383 00:33:11,470 --> 00:33:17,710 beautiful landscape, low involvement in work, 384 00:33:17,710 --> 00:33:23,050 sitting on the porch, drinking rum at sundown, 385 00:33:23,050 --> 00:33:25,960 all images from the colonial tourist world. 386 00:33:28,760 --> 00:33:33,490 I grew up in South Africa with Afrikaans literature 387 00:33:33,490 --> 00:33:36,490 being filled with images of this kind-- 388 00:33:36,490 --> 00:33:41,200 farmers sitting benightedly on their porch 389 00:33:41,200 --> 00:33:45,430 whilst their black laborers slaved away in the distance. 390 00:33:45,430 --> 00:33:50,740 And the young daughter who'd gone to the city 391 00:33:50,740 --> 00:33:53,930 comes back with an illegitimate child, 392 00:33:53,930 --> 00:33:57,010 and they all mourn the fact that the country's 393 00:33:57,010 --> 00:34:00,401 been going to the dogs. 394 00:34:00,401 --> 00:34:02,810 [LAUGHTER] 395 00:34:02,810 --> 00:34:12,940 There's no real-- much though even the Russians 396 00:34:12,940 --> 00:34:20,290 and many ideologies sanctified the country as well 397 00:34:20,290 --> 00:34:22,150 as the city. 398 00:34:22,150 --> 00:34:24,699 The Communist Manifesto says, develop 399 00:34:24,699 --> 00:34:27,429 the country and the city. 400 00:34:27,429 --> 00:34:30,230 The fact is that nobody has really effectively developed 401 00:34:30,230 --> 00:34:30,730 the country. 402 00:34:34,330 --> 00:34:37,969 The United States is producing more food 403 00:34:37,969 --> 00:34:41,290 on 7% of the agricultural population 404 00:34:41,290 --> 00:34:44,080 than it started with. 405 00:34:44,080 --> 00:34:46,010 And that's not the correct statistic. 406 00:34:46,010 --> 00:34:50,870 I haven't got the statistic in front of me, 407 00:34:50,870 --> 00:34:53,150 but it's something like that. 408 00:34:53,150 --> 00:34:55,550 In South Africa since apartheid, there's 409 00:34:55,550 --> 00:34:59,450 been enormous attempts to increase 410 00:34:59,450 --> 00:35:03,110 the amount of agricultural land owned by Black people. 411 00:35:03,110 --> 00:35:05,060 I think they still own less than 20%. 412 00:35:09,920 --> 00:35:18,060 Brutal land reform, such as by Mr. Mugabe in Rhodesia-- 413 00:35:18,060 --> 00:35:23,420 not Rhodesia, Zimbabwe-- has produced 414 00:35:23,420 --> 00:35:26,690 appalling economic results. 415 00:35:26,690 --> 00:35:29,990 We haven't found a formula for making 416 00:35:29,990 --> 00:35:37,070 the land productive outside of heavy technology 417 00:35:37,070 --> 00:35:43,850 or corporate production, which the United States leads 418 00:35:43,850 --> 00:35:44,630 the world in. 419 00:35:50,560 --> 00:35:55,840 There are signs of migration from rural to city 420 00:35:55,840 --> 00:36:02,530 in India suggesting that people do both-- 421 00:36:02,530 --> 00:36:05,440 have part of their families in the country 422 00:36:05,440 --> 00:36:10,405 and work in the city and migrate selectively between them. 423 00:36:10,405 --> 00:36:15,130 These are an intelligent form of migration. 424 00:36:15,130 --> 00:36:18,802 But it's not yet considerably large. 425 00:36:21,460 --> 00:36:29,810 So whereas the British, by the Enclosure of the Commons Act, 426 00:36:29,810 --> 00:36:34,340 took land away from poor people, forced them into cities, 427 00:36:34,340 --> 00:36:37,760 today the process is that nobody is taking the land away 428 00:36:37,760 --> 00:36:40,430 from you, except there's nothing to do on it. 429 00:36:43,910 --> 00:36:49,640 Migration is not a new phenomenon. 430 00:36:49,640 --> 00:36:52,130 We started off as migrants. 431 00:36:52,130 --> 00:36:54,455 We settled after 400 million years-- 432 00:36:56,960 --> 00:36:58,968 took a long time to settle. 433 00:36:58,968 --> 00:37:00,402 [LAUGHTER] 434 00:37:02,320 --> 00:37:09,600 We've only settled for 20,000 years, at best. 435 00:37:09,600 --> 00:37:12,870 But the rural parts of the world are becoming 436 00:37:12,870 --> 00:37:18,130 more desolate, less inhabited. 437 00:37:18,130 --> 00:37:23,200 The problem with Central Africa and the highest migration rates 438 00:37:23,200 --> 00:37:25,450 is a combination of high fertility 439 00:37:25,450 --> 00:37:29,920 rates and urbanization. 440 00:37:29,920 --> 00:37:34,960 You put the two together, and you have a lethal combination. 441 00:37:38,610 --> 00:37:41,290 AUDIENCE: Aren't there are also factors of desertification, 442 00:37:41,290 --> 00:37:43,762 desertification a lot of agricultural land, 443 00:37:43,762 --> 00:37:46,760 and that's part of that migration? 444 00:37:50,330 --> 00:37:52,700 JULIAN BEINART: It depends where you are. 445 00:37:52,700 --> 00:37:56,510 I mean, in Israel, agricultural land is so valuable. 446 00:37:56,510 --> 00:37:59,240 In Cuba, agricultural is so valuable 447 00:37:59,240 --> 00:38:01,670 because the territory is so small. 448 00:38:01,670 --> 00:38:06,980 In this country, one flies over agricultural land endlessly. 449 00:38:06,980 --> 00:38:10,190 And there's no pressure of densification. 450 00:38:10,190 --> 00:38:11,373 AUDIENCE: Desertification. 451 00:38:11,373 --> 00:38:12,290 JULIAN BEINART: Sorry? 452 00:38:12,290 --> 00:38:12,920 AUDIENCE: Desert. 453 00:38:12,920 --> 00:38:14,730 JULIAN BEINART: (LAUGHING) Oh, sorry, I thought densification. 454 00:38:14,730 --> 00:38:15,255 [LAUGHTER] 455 00:38:15,255 --> 00:38:16,130 AUDIENCE: No, no, no. 456 00:38:16,130 --> 00:38:17,330 JULIAN BEINART: Oh, desert. 457 00:38:17,330 --> 00:38:22,940 Yes, the enormous ecological problems. 458 00:38:22,940 --> 00:38:27,060 Untended land tends to get into no good 459 00:38:27,060 --> 00:38:28,620 when it's been tended already. 460 00:38:33,540 --> 00:38:38,850 But ecologists know so much more about this now. 461 00:38:38,850 --> 00:38:41,820 The knowledge of what to do about dammed rivers, 462 00:38:41,820 --> 00:38:46,470 and undamming rivers, letting them travel freely 463 00:38:46,470 --> 00:38:49,515 is a major new ecological thrust. 464 00:38:55,590 --> 00:39:08,480 Population growth is not held to be a good religious thing. 465 00:39:08,480 --> 00:39:11,300 For the Catholics, contraception is 466 00:39:11,300 --> 00:39:16,790 forbidden as it tries to convince the world that it 467 00:39:16,790 --> 00:39:21,320 has an Argentinian pope who's a man who 468 00:39:21,320 --> 00:39:23,780 stood up against the military. 469 00:39:23,780 --> 00:39:26,012 I'm not sure about that, either. 470 00:39:26,012 --> 00:39:27,620 [LAUGHTER] 471 00:39:27,620 --> 00:39:34,080 But whether that's true or not, modern man though he is, 472 00:39:34,080 --> 00:39:36,605 he still believes in the sanctity of life. 473 00:39:45,100 --> 00:39:49,060 So a new world must look to being 474 00:39:49,060 --> 00:39:51,755 able to cope with poverty at a mass scale-- 475 00:39:55,630 --> 00:39:58,070 urbanized poverty, not rural poverty. 476 00:39:58,070 --> 00:40:00,830 Although, rural poverty will remain a phenomena. 477 00:40:03,554 --> 00:40:10,160 There are people who will remain on the farm, 478 00:40:10,160 --> 00:40:12,470 remain in small villages. 479 00:40:12,470 --> 00:40:15,440 But they won't be a significant part of the population. 480 00:40:20,800 --> 00:40:23,730 That's the sad part. 481 00:40:23,730 --> 00:40:31,100 I'm just going to read you a few figures from these texts. 482 00:40:31,100 --> 00:40:38,020 The two best graphic texts are the exhibition book 483 00:40:38,020 --> 00:40:41,170 from the Cooper Hewitt exhibition at the United 484 00:40:41,170 --> 00:40:43,900 Nations last year. 485 00:40:43,900 --> 00:40:45,600 You should have seen the exhibition. 486 00:40:48,310 --> 00:40:51,460 I had a little bit to do with it-- 487 00:40:51,460 --> 00:40:55,990 not saying so because I want to be proud. 488 00:40:55,990 --> 00:40:59,890 And the book of the Rockefeller Foundation, 489 00:40:59,890 --> 00:41:02,020 Century of the City-- 490 00:41:02,020 --> 00:41:04,675 I refer to both of these in your reading. 491 00:41:04,675 --> 00:41:08,800 They're the two best recent publications. 492 00:41:08,800 --> 00:41:13,630 I'm just going to quote here and there from them. 493 00:41:13,630 --> 00:41:15,865 Many of them are amped up about figures. 494 00:41:23,020 --> 00:41:25,690 "In a report on the future economy of India, 495 00:41:25,690 --> 00:41:29,470 Goldman Sachs projects that 31 villagers 496 00:41:29,470 --> 00:41:33,820 will continue to arrive in an Indian city every minute 497 00:41:33,820 --> 00:41:36,640 over the next 43 years-- 498 00:41:36,640 --> 00:41:38,890 700 million people in all." 499 00:41:42,166 --> 00:41:47,660 Now, how do you incubate 700 million people, 500 00:41:47,660 --> 00:41:51,520 which is more than twice the population of the United 501 00:41:51,520 --> 00:41:54,670 States, over 43 years? 502 00:41:54,670 --> 00:41:56,170 We'll see. 503 00:41:56,170 --> 00:41:57,760 I won't be around to watch. 504 00:42:09,890 --> 00:42:13,250 Joel Cohen of Columbia University-- 505 00:42:13,250 --> 00:42:16,910 "The world will have to build one city of one million people 506 00:42:16,910 --> 00:42:21,470 every five days for the next 42 years 507 00:42:21,470 --> 00:42:25,040 to accommodate the massive rural-to-city migration." 508 00:42:27,870 --> 00:42:32,070 One city of one million every five days-- 509 00:42:32,070 --> 00:42:34,590 a lot of work to do. 510 00:42:34,590 --> 00:42:39,060 I'd be very happy in your profession. 511 00:42:39,060 --> 00:42:46,710 You're going to be deluged by professional responsibilities. 512 00:42:58,540 --> 00:43:02,950 It goes on to talk about climate change. 513 00:43:02,950 --> 00:43:06,010 60% of the world's cities are within walking 514 00:43:06,010 --> 00:43:07,270 distance of the sea. 515 00:43:15,420 --> 00:43:20,370 "The coastal provinces of China experienced a net in-migration 516 00:43:20,370 --> 00:43:22,950 of 17 million people in just the five 517 00:43:22,950 --> 00:43:28,080 years between 1995 and 2000. 518 00:43:28,080 --> 00:43:32,115 African-- half of those cities, including Lagos 519 00:43:32,115 --> 00:43:35,340 and [INAUDIBLE]"--"-- they've shifted to Africa-- 520 00:43:35,340 --> 00:43:38,130 "are in the low-elevation coastal. 521 00:43:38,130 --> 00:43:41,250 Much of Mumbai, India, home to the largest slum 522 00:43:41,250 --> 00:43:48,420 settlement in the world, is built essentially on landfill-- 523 00:43:48,420 --> 00:43:52,050 city is a continuing target for weather disasters." 524 00:43:57,750 --> 00:44:00,810 We'll look, in a minute, at a few positives. 525 00:44:17,590 --> 00:44:21,100 "Almost half the global population lives on less than 526 00:44:21,100 --> 00:44:24,490 $2.50 a day. 527 00:44:24,490 --> 00:44:27,970 That is more than 3 billion people, almost all 528 00:44:27,970 --> 00:44:31,230 in developing countries. 529 00:44:31,230 --> 00:44:35,110 Even more shocking, the proportion of people below 530 00:44:35,110 --> 00:44:39,520 the $2.50 per day poverty line has remained more or less 531 00:44:39,520 --> 00:44:45,880 constant between 1981 and 2005. 532 00:44:45,880 --> 00:44:48,730 According to the World Bank, the richest 20% 533 00:44:48,730 --> 00:44:51,070 of the world's population accounts 534 00:44:51,070 --> 00:44:54,250 for 76% of all consumption. 535 00:44:54,250 --> 00:44:57,500 The bottom 40% account for only 1.5%." 536 00:45:28,990 --> 00:45:36,130 I want you to look at some cases of optimism. 537 00:45:36,130 --> 00:45:40,240 These are small situations which have 538 00:45:40,240 --> 00:45:47,260 improved through the energy of workers themselves. 539 00:45:47,260 --> 00:45:52,300 Before that, this fits into the new paradigm, 540 00:45:52,300 --> 00:45:58,330 which has emerged over the last few years, in which theorists 541 00:45:58,330 --> 00:46:01,300 of developing countries and activists 542 00:46:01,300 --> 00:46:05,980 have argued that the only resource that people have 543 00:46:05,980 --> 00:46:11,830 is themselves, that what we call sweat equity or human labor 544 00:46:11,830 --> 00:46:18,610 or adapted human intelligence is all that people have. 545 00:46:18,610 --> 00:46:22,420 So international organizations, like Slum Dwellers 546 00:46:22,420 --> 00:46:25,960 International or the various regional branches 547 00:46:25,960 --> 00:46:33,520 in India and in Thailand and so on 548 00:46:33,520 --> 00:46:38,170 have the ambition to not sit around and wait 549 00:46:38,170 --> 00:46:44,530 for charity or benevolent dictatorship or any 550 00:46:44,530 --> 00:46:47,890 of the other modalities, but to harness, 551 00:46:47,890 --> 00:46:54,670 to use their intelligence and their capacity as human beings 552 00:46:54,670 --> 00:46:56,190 to do something about it. 553 00:47:00,870 --> 00:47:03,560 The problem with all of this-- 554 00:47:03,560 --> 00:47:04,427 yep? 555 00:47:04,427 --> 00:47:08,090 AUDIENCE: Can I read a quote from [INAUDIBLE] 556 00:47:08,090 --> 00:47:10,380 JULIAN BEINART: Sorry, I can't hear. 557 00:47:10,380 --> 00:47:12,960 AUDIENCE: Can I read a quote from one of the papers 558 00:47:12,960 --> 00:47:14,228 that I used for my paper-- 559 00:47:14,228 --> 00:47:15,395 JULIAN BEINART: Yes, please. 560 00:47:15,395 --> 00:47:16,562 AUDIENCE: --that is related? 561 00:47:16,562 --> 00:47:18,470 JULIAN BEINART: Please, somebody talk. 562 00:47:18,470 --> 00:47:20,223 I'm tired of talking. 563 00:47:20,223 --> 00:47:24,790 AUDIENCE: OK, it is in reference of the case 564 00:47:24,790 --> 00:47:29,670 of the slum [INAUDIBLE] in the South African Cape 565 00:47:29,670 --> 00:47:31,018 Town, Khayelitsha. 566 00:47:31,018 --> 00:47:32,435 JULIAN BEINART: Khayelitsha, yeah. 567 00:47:32,435 --> 00:47:33,650 AUDIENCE: Yeah, Khayelitsha. 568 00:47:33,650 --> 00:47:39,864 So this person was the director of development services. 569 00:47:39,864 --> 00:47:44,350 [INAUDIBLE] Talked a little [INAUDIBLE] 570 00:47:44,350 --> 00:47:45,680 this paper about the people. 571 00:47:45,680 --> 00:47:48,760 He says, talking in reference [INAUDIBLE] 572 00:47:48,760 --> 00:47:50,672 JULIAN BEINART: Yeah, just read us the quote. 573 00:47:50,672 --> 00:47:51,820 AUDIENCE: All right. 574 00:47:51,820 --> 00:47:54,160 "If we do not start immediately with meeting 575 00:47:54,160 --> 00:47:55,940 the local communities' most urgent needs, 576 00:47:55,940 --> 00:47:58,450 we are going to lose our legitimacy 577 00:47:58,450 --> 00:48:00,400 as a public administration. 578 00:48:00,400 --> 00:48:03,550 And if we do not do it in the most participatory way 579 00:48:03,550 --> 00:48:06,220 possible," and this is the most important part, 580 00:48:06,220 --> 00:48:09,400 "we will waste the most important capital we have, 581 00:48:09,400 --> 00:48:11,410 the dedication of the people themselves 582 00:48:11,410 --> 00:48:13,630 and their will for change." 583 00:48:13,630 --> 00:48:15,280 JULIAN BEINART: Good. 584 00:48:15,280 --> 00:48:20,500 I think one of the most impressive examples so far has 585 00:48:20,500 --> 00:48:26,140 been the 300,000-person suburb of Sao Paulo, 586 00:48:26,140 --> 00:48:32,710 17 kilometers from the center of Sao Paulo, called Diadema. 587 00:48:32,710 --> 00:48:35,290 Fortunately, they've published a book called 588 00:48:35,290 --> 00:48:38,650 Diadema and the Informal City. 589 00:48:38,650 --> 00:48:40,870 I don't know-- I don't think the library has 590 00:48:40,870 --> 00:48:44,390 a copy of this book. 591 00:48:44,390 --> 00:48:54,790 It's a detailed case study of how Diadema went about 592 00:48:54,790 --> 00:49:01,350 from being one of the most violent cities in Latin 593 00:49:01,350 --> 00:49:04,970 America, having one of the highest crime rates, 594 00:49:04,970 --> 00:49:09,270 have having one of the lowest educational rates, 595 00:49:09,270 --> 00:49:17,020 being one of the worst slums in Latin America, to being, 596 00:49:17,020 --> 00:49:21,420 now, a town which attracts industry, 597 00:49:21,420 --> 00:49:24,300 has its first shopping mall. 598 00:49:24,300 --> 00:49:43,110 And it's a story of workers galvanizing into groups, 599 00:49:43,110 --> 00:49:48,570 exhibiting their power in the election of city officials, 600 00:49:48,570 --> 00:49:54,060 forcing assistive procedure, and to create in poor people 601 00:49:54,060 --> 00:49:58,950 a sense of trust by making things happen in a very 602 00:49:58,950 --> 00:50:01,020 slow but deliberate way-- 603 00:50:01,020 --> 00:50:04,380 paving a street, for instance-- 604 00:50:04,380 --> 00:50:10,020 slowly building up in its dimensions until it 605 00:50:10,020 --> 00:50:15,390 can tackle major issues, such as national financial 606 00:50:15,390 --> 00:50:17,220 intervention. 607 00:50:17,220 --> 00:50:21,910 They go back and forth with the military over a period of time. 608 00:50:21,910 --> 00:50:24,690 Then Lula gets elected president. 609 00:50:24,690 --> 00:50:26,700 He's very sympathetic. 610 00:50:26,700 --> 00:50:34,170 And they have enough evidence to show that they're 611 00:50:34,170 --> 00:50:35,880 worth investing in. 612 00:50:35,880 --> 00:50:41,370 And slowly, infant mortality rates decline, all of this 613 00:50:41,370 --> 00:50:41,940 happens. 614 00:50:41,940 --> 00:50:46,440 New housing is built. Older housing is renewed. 615 00:50:46,440 --> 00:50:50,360 People are part of a process which-- 616 00:50:50,360 --> 00:50:57,140 there's teaching in schools about crime. 617 00:50:57,140 --> 00:51:00,260 Guns are taken away at school. 618 00:51:00,260 --> 00:51:03,950 I mean, a whole network of things 619 00:51:03,950 --> 00:51:08,450 happened which probably characterize a good town. 620 00:51:08,450 --> 00:51:11,390 And they know they're very proud of the fact 621 00:51:11,390 --> 00:51:16,250 that they've emerged from the worst conditions of slumness, 622 00:51:16,250 --> 00:51:21,170 slumhood, to being a-- 623 00:51:21,170 --> 00:51:25,550 along the way were a couple of themes. 624 00:51:25,550 --> 00:51:31,700 Trust-- poor people don't easily have trust. 625 00:51:31,700 --> 00:51:34,890 They've never been brought up to trust anybody 626 00:51:34,890 --> 00:51:42,090 except some intimate relationship, if they're lucky. 627 00:51:42,090 --> 00:51:44,880 They don't trust the government. 628 00:51:44,880 --> 00:51:49,500 Our government bypasses them almost completely. 629 00:51:49,500 --> 00:51:54,280 They have no prospects that anybody 630 00:51:54,280 --> 00:51:57,250 is going to be able to change the system. 631 00:51:57,250 --> 00:52:00,670 Slowly, the system does change. 632 00:52:00,670 --> 00:52:07,210 And a generation of people grow up who start believing. 633 00:52:10,020 --> 00:52:14,850 All of this is true in the other case in the reading, which 634 00:52:14,850 --> 00:52:22,320 I took because it's a man who deals with housing 635 00:52:22,320 --> 00:52:28,230 finance in Bangkok, who writes very explicitly about how he 636 00:52:28,230 --> 00:52:33,660 changed his method of working by allowing people to take part 637 00:52:33,660 --> 00:52:36,390 and using [INAUDIBLE],, teaching people 638 00:52:36,390 --> 00:52:39,630 how to deal with their money. 639 00:52:39,630 --> 00:52:44,220 Learning how to deal with money is something to be learned. 640 00:52:44,220 --> 00:52:45,960 Nobody ever taught me. 641 00:52:45,960 --> 00:52:47,160 I still don't know. 642 00:52:50,630 --> 00:52:52,340 It's extraordinary. 643 00:52:52,340 --> 00:52:54,320 You arrive in a modern world. 644 00:52:54,320 --> 00:52:56,540 You've got to buy a house. 645 00:52:56,540 --> 00:52:59,000 Your parents were too old to-- 646 00:52:59,000 --> 00:53:03,881 uneducated to-- in this kind of game. 647 00:53:03,881 --> 00:53:07,385 Where do you learn? 648 00:53:07,385 --> 00:53:10,916 Where is the social instruction? 649 00:53:10,916 --> 00:53:13,480 This is in a middle class situation. 650 00:53:16,140 --> 00:53:19,570 When my son bought an apartment in New York, 651 00:53:19,570 --> 00:53:24,030 he was lucky to have a wife who is an accountant. 652 00:53:24,030 --> 00:53:27,480 So he could remain being a theorist 653 00:53:27,480 --> 00:53:31,020 while his wife took care of all the financial stuff. 654 00:53:31,020 --> 00:53:32,930 It's a wonderful combination. 655 00:53:32,930 --> 00:53:36,860 But not many people are lucky to be married to accountants. 656 00:53:44,220 --> 00:53:49,770 So that piece deals with the enormous capacity 657 00:53:49,770 --> 00:53:56,200 for microfinance to generate both a sense of trust. 658 00:53:56,200 --> 00:53:58,660 It's analogous to the invention of the mortgage 659 00:53:58,660 --> 00:54:02,130 system in England in 1830. 660 00:54:02,130 --> 00:54:06,640 The mortgage system took the business of borrowing money 661 00:54:06,640 --> 00:54:12,040 away from a crooked landowner person, put it 662 00:54:12,040 --> 00:54:14,590 in the hands of a bank. 663 00:54:14,590 --> 00:54:18,970 A bank may crook, but it has to crook on a very much 664 00:54:18,970 --> 00:54:21,100 larger scale than you. 665 00:54:24,140 --> 00:54:31,100 And the mortgage system enabled trust 666 00:54:31,100 --> 00:54:34,520 in the purchase of housing in a way 667 00:54:34,520 --> 00:54:37,030 that had never existed before. 668 00:54:37,030 --> 00:54:40,280 You were always at the behest of your landlord. 669 00:54:44,620 --> 00:54:47,620 You get these stories of La Boheme 670 00:54:47,620 --> 00:54:52,540 and La Traviata in Paris, artists 671 00:54:52,540 --> 00:54:58,270 living in the top floor of a Haussmann Boulevard house 672 00:54:58,270 --> 00:55:01,300 and the knock on the door, saying 673 00:55:01,300 --> 00:55:04,540 haven't paid your rent for the last few months. 674 00:55:04,540 --> 00:55:06,075 What are you going to do? 675 00:55:06,075 --> 00:55:08,470 And you're starving of tuberculosis. 676 00:55:10,990 --> 00:55:16,320 So that image is no longer present, or not largely present 677 00:55:16,320 --> 00:55:18,330 in the mortgage system. 678 00:55:18,330 --> 00:55:23,180 A microfinance system is analogous to the mortgage 679 00:55:23,180 --> 00:55:26,370 system in the building of trust. 680 00:55:26,370 --> 00:55:33,660 98% of the loans engendered in India in microfinance 681 00:55:33,660 --> 00:55:41,100 have been repaid, which is an incredible statistic, given 682 00:55:41,100 --> 00:55:48,630 the general condition of poverty and the lawlessness 683 00:55:48,630 --> 00:55:50,500 that it insinuates. 684 00:55:53,260 --> 00:56:03,000 OK, the trouble with seeing good things happen 685 00:56:03,000 --> 00:56:05,010 is that sometimes good things need 686 00:56:05,010 --> 00:56:07,800 to happen at a very large scale for them really 687 00:56:07,800 --> 00:56:10,410 to make a big impact. 688 00:56:10,410 --> 00:56:16,510 Scaling up Diadema is difficult. How 689 00:56:16,510 --> 00:56:28,120 do you get the idea to occur in Tanzania, or in the Congo, 690 00:56:28,120 --> 00:56:28,690 in Darfur? 691 00:56:32,850 --> 00:56:35,580 But at least they are a small model. 692 00:56:35,580 --> 00:56:45,640 Now, maybe we will not need massive international 693 00:56:45,640 --> 00:56:52,150 cooperation to generate new models. 694 00:56:52,150 --> 00:56:56,460 I despair, given the track record 695 00:56:56,460 --> 00:57:06,430 of League of Nations, United Nations, atomic energy, 696 00:57:06,430 --> 00:57:13,480 and climate carbon control agreements. 697 00:57:18,420 --> 00:57:24,330 As long as you ask the poor world 698 00:57:24,330 --> 00:57:28,410 to subdue their economic activity, industrial activity, 699 00:57:28,410 --> 00:57:33,450 on the grounds that they are contributing to climate change, 700 00:57:33,450 --> 00:57:36,630 they rightfully can point to the United States 701 00:57:36,630 --> 00:57:43,010 having built up its economy through smoke and railroads 702 00:57:43,010 --> 00:57:54,780 and now, being the largest client for carbon production 703 00:57:54,780 --> 00:57:57,930 in the world, complaining. 704 00:57:57,930 --> 00:58:02,220 Even the United States wouldn't sign the Kyoto Agreement, 705 00:58:02,220 --> 00:58:05,740 in Copenhagen got no further. 706 00:58:05,740 --> 00:58:16,110 So I leave you with optimism and a kind of foreboding. 707 00:58:16,110 --> 00:58:19,680 A combination of climate change and poverty 708 00:58:19,680 --> 00:58:23,530 is a disastrous combination. 709 00:58:23,530 --> 00:58:29,790 Its effects will be particularly felt 710 00:58:29,790 --> 00:58:37,510 in water-borne cities like Dhaka, in the Himalaya region. 711 00:58:37,510 --> 00:58:44,650 The Himalayas control very much of the flood and drought cycles 712 00:58:44,650 --> 00:58:46,150 in the areas it reaches. 713 00:58:50,320 --> 00:58:57,810 Wealth will be able to withstand climate change, by and large. 714 00:58:57,810 --> 00:59:06,320 It will modify behavior, but it will increase migration 715 00:59:06,320 --> 00:59:09,170 pressure on the United States and on Europe 716 00:59:09,170 --> 00:59:12,970 and on established countries. 717 00:59:12,970 --> 00:59:16,840 I don't think United States television 718 00:59:16,840 --> 00:59:19,630 could stand having children floating 719 00:59:19,630 --> 00:59:26,160 in water in Bangladesh without changing its migration 720 00:59:26,160 --> 00:59:28,140 attitude. 721 00:59:28,140 --> 00:59:34,710 Migration is now under debate in this country. 722 00:59:34,710 --> 00:59:37,650 As a migrant, I myself, of course 723 00:59:37,650 --> 00:59:39,270 I'm in favor of migration. 724 00:59:41,930 --> 00:59:44,120 Statistically, we have built this country. 725 00:59:47,190 --> 00:59:50,940 There are more foreign-born professors in this school 726 00:59:50,940 --> 00:59:53,520 than there are Americans, I think. 727 00:59:53,520 --> 00:59:56,114 I don't know. 728 00:59:56,114 --> 00:59:58,020 There'll be one less soon. 729 00:59:58,020 --> 01:00:00,220 [LAUGHTER] 730 01:00:02,440 --> 01:00:06,190 These are all trajectories for the long future, 731 01:00:06,190 --> 01:00:08,410 but not so long. 732 01:00:08,410 --> 01:00:11,200 It's already 2013. 733 01:00:11,200 --> 01:00:17,680 Some of these predictions are for 2030. 734 01:00:17,680 --> 01:00:22,630 And there's no respite except for the people 735 01:00:22,630 --> 01:00:33,200 who believe that science has no way of forecasting change. 736 01:00:33,200 --> 01:00:35,000 Anyway, these are dull topics. 737 01:00:35,000 --> 01:00:37,430 [LAUGHTER] 738 01:00:37,430 --> 01:00:41,300 There's not much that you can go out and do about it except 739 01:00:41,300 --> 01:00:44,540 buy yourself a hybrid car and eat green. 740 01:00:51,530 --> 01:00:56,530 The trouble with climate change-- it's too invisible. 741 01:00:56,530 --> 01:00:59,800 It's not dramatic enough to stir the public conscience. 742 01:01:04,430 --> 01:01:07,850 You think of the German Holocaust. 743 01:01:07,850 --> 01:01:12,230 In 1936, when Berlin had the Olympic Games, 744 01:01:12,230 --> 01:01:15,350 there were concentration camps within miles, 745 01:01:15,350 --> 01:01:19,950 on the outskirts of Berlin. 746 01:01:19,950 --> 01:01:24,030 Avery Brundage, the leader of the American delegation, 747 01:01:24,030 --> 01:01:27,990 castigated New York Jews in The New York Times 748 01:01:27,990 --> 01:01:29,910 for making a story of it. 749 01:01:33,500 --> 01:01:35,810 The United States refused to take 750 01:01:35,810 --> 01:01:43,430 in a boat of people fleeing the Holocaust because they weren't 751 01:01:43,430 --> 01:01:48,320 legal citizens, and so on and so on. 752 01:01:48,320 --> 01:01:50,510 The demonstration of the Holocaust 753 01:01:50,510 --> 01:02:02,920 over 10 years of visibility was neglected by almost everybody. 754 01:02:02,920 --> 01:02:09,760 I don't have much trust in the universal consciousness. 755 01:02:09,760 --> 01:02:13,450 The world doesn't have any conscience. 756 01:02:13,450 --> 01:02:16,420 It only has selective consciousness, 757 01:02:16,420 --> 01:02:21,580 often in service of private good and national good. 758 01:02:21,580 --> 01:02:24,940 The more Boston goes on about being strong, 759 01:02:24,940 --> 01:02:30,070 the more I read a kind of perverse nationalism creeping 760 01:02:30,070 --> 01:02:31,960 in-- 761 01:02:31,960 --> 01:02:37,090 again, identifying yourself as able to be a Goliath 762 01:02:37,090 --> 01:02:41,560 withstanding the treachery of two young men. 763 01:02:45,760 --> 01:02:49,090 Anyway, these are my personal positions. 764 01:02:51,750 --> 01:02:55,398 I don't know what you think about your future. 765 01:02:55,398 --> 01:03:02,770 [LAUGHS] I grew up with the advantage of being a modernist. 766 01:03:02,770 --> 01:03:06,330 And the world was very attractive-- 767 01:03:06,330 --> 01:03:11,290 if only we could slay all those 19th century devils. 768 01:03:11,290 --> 01:03:14,290 It's amazing to me to know that-- 769 01:03:14,290 --> 01:03:19,330 to think that I studied modern architectural history 770 01:03:19,330 --> 01:03:23,020 with Sigfried Giedion at Harvard. 771 01:03:23,020 --> 01:03:27,430 In Giedion, in all of his teaching to us-- 772 01:03:27,430 --> 01:03:31,130 after all, he wrote Space, Time and Architecture, which 773 01:03:31,130 --> 01:03:32,710 was a big book at my day-- 774 01:03:37,100 --> 01:03:41,210 Giedion only referred to the terrible ruling tastes 775 01:03:41,210 --> 01:03:44,930 of the 19th century, that it wasn't producing 776 01:03:44,930 --> 01:03:47,630 architects of any consequence. 777 01:03:47,630 --> 01:03:54,710 He never mentioned anything to do with a city, 778 01:03:54,710 --> 01:04:00,050 not in all of his evocation, class after class of modernism. 779 01:04:02,830 --> 01:04:07,090 He'd said, oh, it's attractive that we've grown up. 780 01:04:12,161 --> 01:04:15,270 At least I think we've grown up. 781 01:04:15,270 --> 01:04:19,450 We're beginning to grow up. 782 01:04:19,450 --> 01:04:24,370 We talk about architecture being inseparable from urbanism now. 783 01:04:24,370 --> 01:04:29,310 And yet we don't teach urban history at all. 784 01:04:29,310 --> 01:04:31,530 This is the closest class you're going to get 785 01:04:31,530 --> 01:04:34,200 to dealing with urban history. 786 01:04:34,200 --> 01:04:41,250 And I know a historian, and he uses a sneaky method 787 01:04:41,250 --> 01:04:42,720 to introduce history. 788 01:04:42,720 --> 01:04:45,210 [LAUGHTER] 789 01:04:45,210 --> 01:04:49,920 Not being sure of the detailed facts myself, 790 01:04:49,920 --> 01:04:57,090 I have to conjure up clever, tricky ways of convincing you. 791 01:05:00,720 --> 01:05:02,610 There's no architecture curriculum 792 01:05:02,610 --> 01:05:07,050 in the world that doesn't require architectural history 793 01:05:07,050 --> 01:05:10,020 as a major element of its discourse. 794 01:05:12,530 --> 01:05:16,610 There's no field in the arts-- 795 01:05:16,610 --> 01:05:20,900 literature, painting, music-- that 796 01:05:20,900 --> 01:05:25,290 doesn't require an understanding of its predecessors. 797 01:05:28,160 --> 01:05:30,350 You can play the horn as much as you want to, 798 01:05:30,350 --> 01:05:35,030 but you better know Mozart, or at least one symphony 799 01:05:35,030 --> 01:05:39,470 of Mozart, in your exams. 800 01:05:39,470 --> 01:05:41,600 You can be an architectural graduate 801 01:05:41,600 --> 01:05:47,120 with not knowing one city plan in history. 802 01:05:47,120 --> 01:05:49,080 City plans are difficult to remember, 803 01:05:49,080 --> 01:05:52,490 and I wouldn't want to be given an exam asking 804 01:05:52,490 --> 01:05:55,940 me to draw 10 city plans. 805 01:05:55,940 --> 01:05:57,260 Chandigarh is easy. 806 01:05:57,260 --> 01:05:59,990 Manhattan is easy. 807 01:05:59,990 --> 01:06:10,760 Once you depart-- anyway, so go and finish your work. 808 01:06:10,760 --> 01:06:13,100 Have a great summer. 809 01:06:13,100 --> 01:06:16,240 And I'll see you on Thursday if you have the time. 810 01:06:18,790 --> 01:06:22,160 So much for the world of-- 811 01:06:22,160 --> 01:06:24,760 the developing-- Ricardo, what do you think 812 01:06:24,760 --> 01:06:27,666 is going to happen in Mexico? 813 01:06:27,666 --> 01:06:29,082 AUDIENCE: Ooh. 814 01:06:29,082 --> 01:06:30,500 [LAUGHTER] 815 01:06:30,500 --> 01:06:33,410 JULIAN BEINART: No, in relation to our general discussion 816 01:06:33,410 --> 01:06:34,272 this morning? 817 01:06:34,272 --> 01:06:36,230 AUDIENCE: I think there was a lot of discussion 818 01:06:36,230 --> 01:06:37,250 around Mexico City. 819 01:06:37,250 --> 01:06:39,350 But I think that most people tend to neglect 820 01:06:39,350 --> 01:06:44,880 what's happening in mid-sized cities in Mexico-- 821 01:06:44,880 --> 01:06:48,830 so not necessarily places like Monterrey or Guadalajara, 822 01:06:48,830 --> 01:06:53,540 but actually places like Puebla, [INAUDIBLE],, 823 01:06:53,540 --> 01:06:57,700 which are a big part of the backbone of where Mexico lives, 824 01:06:57,700 --> 01:07:00,444 places like [INAUDIBLE]. 825 01:07:00,444 --> 01:07:09,080 And they fear that they're often thought of as basically 826 01:07:09,080 --> 01:07:10,766 an afterthought. 827 01:07:13,670 --> 01:07:20,970 But you see cities there, like Tijuana, like [INAUDIBLE],, who 828 01:07:20,970 --> 01:07:24,870 are really experimenting and pushing things forward, 829 01:07:24,870 --> 01:07:27,300 for that population, is very interesting-- 830 01:07:27,300 --> 01:07:29,830 not necessarily the following the model of [INAUDIBLE].. 831 01:07:33,880 --> 01:07:36,820 So it's interesting that they are-- 832 01:07:36,820 --> 01:07:38,750 JULIAN BEINART: Is there any movement 833 01:07:38,750 --> 01:07:41,910 that combines these efforts? 834 01:07:41,910 --> 01:07:42,540 AUDIENCE: Yeah. 835 01:07:42,540 --> 01:07:45,780 Yeah, there are some programs. 836 01:07:45,780 --> 01:07:51,138 There are some programs by the federal government [INAUDIBLE] 837 01:07:51,138 --> 01:07:55,450 urban sustainable development. 838 01:07:55,450 --> 01:07:58,480 And within each city, there tends 839 01:07:58,480 --> 01:08:01,630 to be a local grassroots movements that 840 01:08:01,630 --> 01:08:04,778 are sort of pushing the urban development. 841 01:08:04,778 --> 01:08:06,870 AUDIENCE: What is it mean? 842 01:08:06,870 --> 01:08:07,590 AUDIENCE: DUIS. 843 01:08:07,590 --> 01:08:10,278 It's easier if you just look at DUIS. 844 01:08:10,278 --> 01:08:11,820 AUDIENCE: But what does it stand for? 845 01:08:11,820 --> 01:08:15,410 AUDIENCE: It's Wholly Sustainable Urban Developments. 846 01:08:15,410 --> 01:08:17,761 AUDIENCE: Wholly Sustainable Urban Development. 847 01:08:17,761 --> 01:08:18,750 AUDIENCE: Wholly? 848 01:08:18,750 --> 01:08:21,231 AUDIENCE: Yeah. 849 01:08:21,231 --> 01:08:23,189 It's a program from the federal government that 850 01:08:23,189 --> 01:08:26,193 finances housing [INAUDIBLE] Mexico is building 851 01:08:26,193 --> 01:08:31,870 about 950,000 houses a year. 852 01:08:31,870 --> 01:08:37,319 So there is a lot going on there. 853 01:08:37,319 --> 01:08:38,858 It's interesting times down there, 854 01:08:38,858 --> 01:08:42,104 as in many places in Latin America, actually. 855 01:08:45,439 --> 01:08:47,660 JULIAN BEINART: Yeah. 856 01:08:47,660 --> 01:08:51,380 Well, let's hope. 857 01:08:55,844 --> 01:08:59,130 This class was not to depress you. 858 01:08:59,130 --> 01:08:59,899 AUDIENCE: Sorry? 859 01:08:59,899 --> 01:09:01,649 JULIAN BEINART: I said, this class was not 860 01:09:01,649 --> 01:09:03,827 designed to depress you. 861 01:09:03,827 --> 01:09:05,819 [LAUGHTER] 862 01:09:05,819 --> 01:09:11,279 On the contrary, you could simply say, over 10,000 years, 863 01:09:11,279 --> 01:09:17,250 we achieved achieve more than 400 million before us. 864 01:09:17,250 --> 01:09:27,050 And there's many benefits that have come 865 01:09:27,050 --> 01:09:30,680 from urbanization in our time. 866 01:09:34,979 --> 01:09:36,780 Maybe it will continue-- 867 01:09:36,780 --> 01:09:40,760 but hopefully, less selectively than it's been up to now. 868 01:09:43,370 --> 01:09:53,300 There's no law that asks you to be a social animal. 869 01:09:53,300 --> 01:09:57,290 You can't drive into somebody else's garden 870 01:09:57,290 --> 01:09:59,630 and get away with it. 871 01:09:59,630 --> 01:10:04,170 But there's nothing that requires 872 01:10:04,170 --> 01:10:10,050 you to see your own condition in the light of other people less 873 01:10:10,050 --> 01:10:11,940 fortunate. 874 01:10:11,940 --> 01:10:14,580 Charity was invented by the British. 875 01:10:14,580 --> 01:10:18,160 Well, charity has been with us forever. 876 01:10:18,160 --> 01:10:21,810 But at the end of the 19th century, 877 01:10:21,810 --> 01:10:28,510 charity was seen as the major involvement of wealth. 878 01:10:28,510 --> 01:10:31,510 It still is in this country. 879 01:10:31,510 --> 01:10:36,890 I get upset every time I get a phone call 880 01:10:36,890 --> 01:10:41,090 asking me to donate something and trying to reconstruct 881 01:10:41,090 --> 01:10:46,700 my own ideology, which is not in favor of charity at all, 882 01:10:46,700 --> 01:10:52,095 but charity being only a method of conceding the government's 883 01:10:52,095 --> 01:10:52,595 inaction. 884 01:10:59,010 --> 01:11:01,980 There's no-- I don't know. 885 01:11:01,980 --> 01:11:04,340 It's very complicated. 886 01:11:04,340 --> 01:11:08,250 It's very fundamentally complicated as to who was-- 887 01:11:08,250 --> 01:11:16,410 why was I statistically born to have enough money 888 01:11:16,410 --> 01:11:21,795 to come and study here and then have enough energy to stay? 889 01:11:24,450 --> 01:11:26,670 I'll never be able to answer-- 890 01:11:26,670 --> 01:11:32,070 as opposed to a child growing up in the Congo today. 891 01:11:32,070 --> 01:11:37,110 What statistical right do I have over that child? 892 01:11:37,110 --> 01:11:41,310 These are questions philosophers have argued with. 893 01:11:41,310 --> 01:11:42,195 They may be tedious. 894 01:11:48,530 --> 01:11:52,040 But Marxism didn't solve the problem. 895 01:11:52,040 --> 01:11:58,190 Marxism only introduced a new form of power, 896 01:11:58,190 --> 01:12:03,110 despite all of the grassroots sentiments, 897 01:12:03,110 --> 01:12:08,830 it didn't result in anything. 898 01:12:08,830 --> 01:12:11,620 OK, see you next week-- 899 01:12:11,620 --> 01:12:14,380 I'll see you later this week.