1 00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:02,520 The following content is provided under a Creative 2 00:00:02,520 --> 00:00:03,970 Commons license. 3 00:00:03,970 --> 00:00:06,360 Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare 4 00:00:06,360 --> 00:00:10,660 continue to offer high-quality educational resources for free. 5 00:00:10,660 --> 00:00:13,350 To make a donation or view additional materials 6 00:00:13,350 --> 00:00:17,190 from hundreds of MIT courses, visit MIT OpenCourseWare 7 00:00:17,190 --> 00:00:18,320 at ocw.mit.edu. 8 00:00:24,760 --> 00:00:26,760 JULIAN BEINART: You'll recall the last class was 9 00:00:26,760 --> 00:00:31,880 a third of conceptual models, this one dealing 10 00:00:31,880 --> 00:00:38,330 with the organic shape of nature and its replication 11 00:00:38,330 --> 00:00:43,740 in patterning of cities. 12 00:00:43,740 --> 00:00:50,240 We focused on a number of examples, one of which 13 00:00:50,240 --> 00:00:54,560 was the work of Patrick Geddes. 14 00:00:54,560 --> 00:00:57,920 The second one was the work of Ebenezer Howard and the garden 15 00:00:57,920 --> 00:00:59,710 city movement. 16 00:00:59,710 --> 00:01:04,830 The third was the work of Clarence Stein in the United 17 00:01:04,830 --> 00:01:05,330 States. 18 00:01:09,770 --> 00:01:16,520 And then I did a short run through of a piece 19 00:01:16,520 --> 00:01:20,870 that I wrote last year for a conference in Athens 20 00:01:20,870 --> 00:01:24,560 on nature and the city, in which I 21 00:01:24,560 --> 00:01:29,945 argued that there was the most dynamic thing about cities. 22 00:01:29,945 --> 00:01:35,990 It is our human capacity to learn and to adapt to change. 23 00:01:35,990 --> 00:01:43,610 And I try to show that in the life of 70 24 00:01:43,610 --> 00:01:48,860 years of the Tennessee Valley Authority, 25 00:01:48,860 --> 00:01:52,580 the capacity to change the perspective about what 26 00:01:52,580 --> 00:01:54,440 nature is. 27 00:01:57,080 --> 00:01:59,410 Nature is no static phenomenon. 28 00:02:04,370 --> 00:02:07,670 It's a learning of patterns as previously 29 00:02:07,670 --> 00:02:11,090 identified in organic systems-- 30 00:02:11,090 --> 00:02:12,110 selectively. 31 00:02:15,032 --> 00:02:18,190 So it requires the human brain. 32 00:02:18,190 --> 00:02:28,310 And the Tennessee Valley Authority 33 00:02:28,310 --> 00:02:36,370 built 28 dams on the concept that dams, that water power, 34 00:02:36,370 --> 00:02:41,920 was more hygienic and would be sufficient for creating 35 00:02:41,920 --> 00:02:46,420 a new industrial zone in the eight states of the Tennessee 36 00:02:46,420 --> 00:02:49,240 Valley. 37 00:02:49,240 --> 00:02:54,610 65% of the power now is not generated by water. 38 00:02:54,610 --> 00:02:59,260 The prediction of the economic growth in this region 39 00:02:59,260 --> 00:03:01,580 was very low. 40 00:03:01,580 --> 00:03:05,320 Also, the capacity of the water to produce enough energy 41 00:03:05,320 --> 00:03:06,880 was low. 42 00:03:06,880 --> 00:03:10,120 So what happened? 43 00:03:10,120 --> 00:03:13,060 Coal became the substitute. 44 00:03:13,060 --> 00:03:17,810 Coal led to strip mining, which is as anti-natural phenomenon 45 00:03:17,810 --> 00:03:20,650 as you can imagine. 46 00:03:20,650 --> 00:03:24,250 The largest environmental disaster in the United States 47 00:03:24,250 --> 00:03:26,950 happened in the coal spill from one 48 00:03:26,950 --> 00:03:35,750 of the coal-generating plants, and so on, and so on. 49 00:03:35,750 --> 00:03:41,240 And we went through an argument which 50 00:03:41,240 --> 00:03:44,210 suggests that nature is still a phenomenon which 51 00:03:44,210 --> 00:03:49,200 is understood through the process of the human brain. 52 00:03:49,200 --> 00:03:53,705 There's no absolute correctness of nature. 53 00:03:56,900 --> 00:04:03,230 Biomorphism is a foolish project by architects 54 00:04:03,230 --> 00:04:06,650 who should understand a much broader interpretation 55 00:04:06,650 --> 00:04:12,110 of history and culture than to select items 56 00:04:12,110 --> 00:04:15,830 from array of natural forms. 57 00:04:15,830 --> 00:04:18,019 It's purely a selection. 58 00:04:18,019 --> 00:04:24,920 Yes, maybe-- we have no measurement 59 00:04:24,920 --> 00:04:27,800 that people are more satisfied in a forest 60 00:04:27,800 --> 00:04:35,160 than on Fifth Avenue in New York. 61 00:04:35,160 --> 00:04:37,050 We assume that to be true. 62 00:04:37,050 --> 00:04:39,740 I suppose we could if we got honest people 63 00:04:39,740 --> 00:04:42,230 in a questionnaire. 64 00:04:42,230 --> 00:04:44,690 But Marx was right, that the establishment 65 00:04:44,690 --> 00:04:48,830 of the first settlement set up a duality between country 66 00:04:48,830 --> 00:04:53,810 and city, which is going to take a lot of time to resolve. 67 00:04:53,810 --> 00:04:56,970 And it's still problematic. 68 00:04:56,970 --> 00:05:21,730 What I've given you today are some functional descriptive 69 00:05:21,730 --> 00:05:24,715 theories borrowed mainly from the social sciences. 70 00:05:27,240 --> 00:05:29,860 I will go through each of them with an example, 71 00:05:29,860 --> 00:05:35,590 and discuss what the theory is, and what it proposes, 72 00:05:35,590 --> 00:05:37,750 what its weaknesses are. 73 00:05:37,750 --> 00:05:42,250 This used to be a whole subject for a whole semester in city 74 00:05:42,250 --> 00:05:44,350 planning education. 75 00:05:44,350 --> 00:05:46,150 It's hardly dealt with now. 76 00:05:46,150 --> 00:05:48,100 Part of these are classical series, 77 00:05:48,100 --> 00:05:53,230 which no longer are interesting to anybody. 78 00:05:53,230 --> 00:05:59,020 The second page-- the first page deals with the application 79 00:05:59,020 --> 00:06:00,250 of one of these theories-- 80 00:06:00,250 --> 00:06:04,270 Hoyt's to Atlanta. 81 00:06:04,270 --> 00:06:10,450 You can see the sector theory in Atlanta, 82 00:06:10,450 --> 00:06:17,470 indicating the location of high-income white housing as 83 00:06:17,470 --> 00:06:24,250 opposed to low-income housing, following a model purported 84 00:06:24,250 --> 00:06:30,990 by Homer Hoyt in 1935. 85 00:06:30,990 --> 00:06:36,300 The next page deals with examination 86 00:06:36,300 --> 00:06:41,310 of two figures in Great Britain, who lived 87 00:06:41,310 --> 00:06:43,560 more or less at the same time-- 88 00:06:43,560 --> 00:06:51,870 John Ruskin, the theorist of painting, 89 00:06:51,870 --> 00:06:57,030 and Friedrich Engels, who we will discuss more fully in two 90 00:06:57,030 --> 00:07:01,980 weeks, in a week's time, one of the origins 91 00:07:01,980 --> 00:07:04,780 of the modern Communist Manifesto. 92 00:07:04,780 --> 00:07:11,910 And in 1845, at the age of 25, he 93 00:07:11,910 --> 00:07:16,470 wrote one of the greatest books on urbanism ever written, 94 00:07:16,470 --> 00:07:19,180 The Condition of the Working Class in England, 95 00:07:19,180 --> 00:07:22,290 which we'll discuss when we talk about the origins 96 00:07:22,290 --> 00:07:24,570 of the industrial city. 97 00:07:24,570 --> 00:07:29,460 The next page is from a diagram by Mel Weber 98 00:07:29,460 --> 00:07:33,330 in a book called Urban Place and Non-Place Urban Realm. 99 00:07:33,330 --> 00:07:39,630 This was a set of studies, which is published 100 00:07:39,630 --> 00:07:44,520 in this book, [INAUDIBLE],, and in another book called Cities 101 00:07:44,520 --> 00:07:50,760 and Space, which deal with the advent of the interpretation 102 00:07:50,760 --> 00:07:54,810 of different systems of communication 103 00:07:54,810 --> 00:07:58,650 interacting in one place. 104 00:07:58,650 --> 00:08:07,050 This is an oppositional position to the conventional economic 105 00:08:07,050 --> 00:08:12,720 models, or even physical models, of interaction, 106 00:08:12,720 --> 00:08:20,460 and an old model by a book called A Communications Theory 107 00:08:20,460 --> 00:08:26,880 of Urban Growth looking at the measurement of intersections 108 00:08:26,880 --> 00:08:30,780 in complementary functions in spatial form. 109 00:08:30,780 --> 00:08:35,774 And the last-- this is the next page-- 110 00:08:39,250 --> 00:08:44,890 he's from economic geography and represents 111 00:08:44,890 --> 00:08:46,850 population potential diagrams. 112 00:08:51,040 --> 00:08:55,330 And then next, we will finish with a very recent piece 113 00:08:55,330 --> 00:09:01,450 from The New York Times in which a physicist solves the city. 114 00:09:04,510 --> 00:09:09,850 This is hopefully what we will finish with. 115 00:09:09,850 --> 00:09:16,540 The question is, does it really make any sense at all? 116 00:09:16,540 --> 00:09:21,730 But we'll look at the work of these people dealing 117 00:09:21,730 --> 00:09:26,600 with models of complex theory at the moment. 118 00:09:26,600 --> 00:09:30,590 The first-- let's go through this very quickly. 119 00:09:30,590 --> 00:09:35,260 The first-- by the way, these breakdowns 120 00:09:35,260 --> 00:09:38,980 were created in this class with Kevin Lynch 121 00:09:38,980 --> 00:09:40,870 and follows them, to some extent. 122 00:09:43,840 --> 00:09:49,150 Cities are seen as unique historical processes. 123 00:09:49,150 --> 00:09:53,610 Each city is a unique cumulative historical process. 124 00:09:53,610 --> 00:09:58,060 A city can only be explained by telling a story. 125 00:09:58,060 --> 00:10:02,770 You cannot generalize very much about cities. 126 00:10:02,770 --> 00:10:05,170 What you can generalize about is the way 127 00:10:05,170 --> 00:10:08,950 of reading a city, the idea you have 128 00:10:08,950 --> 00:10:12,710 to learn the standard way of looking at them. 129 00:10:12,710 --> 00:10:18,190 So, for instance, Rasmussen says two chief types 130 00:10:18,190 --> 00:10:22,090 are distinguishable among large cities-- 131 00:10:22,090 --> 00:10:24,790 the concentrated and the scattered. 132 00:10:24,790 --> 00:10:27,220 The former is the more common on the continent. 133 00:10:27,220 --> 00:10:30,700 It's clearly represented by the big government seats of Paris, 134 00:10:30,700 --> 00:10:32,840 and Vienna, and so on. 135 00:10:32,840 --> 00:10:37,120 The second type is represented by the English town, which now, 136 00:10:37,120 --> 00:10:38,730 to many of us, seems ideal. 137 00:10:41,630 --> 00:10:49,330 The question of what is unique and what is generalized 138 00:10:49,330 --> 00:10:53,170 is different in some of these propositions, 139 00:10:53,170 --> 00:11:00,185 even within this proposition of the unique historic process. 140 00:11:03,440 --> 00:11:09,380 You have a book, like Allan Jacobs' book on streets, which, 141 00:11:09,380 --> 00:11:12,380 by the way, doesn't include the Nevsky Prospect, which 142 00:11:12,380 --> 00:11:14,360 is one of the great streets in the world. 143 00:11:14,360 --> 00:11:17,840 It's only streets that Allen Jacobs has visited. 144 00:11:17,840 --> 00:11:22,430 In science, I don't know if you can do experimentation 145 00:11:22,430 --> 00:11:27,620 on the basis of only what you have visited, but it's OK. 146 00:11:27,620 --> 00:11:33,530 We are handicapped. 147 00:11:33,530 --> 00:11:45,680 But the cities, the streets, that he identities, 148 00:11:45,680 --> 00:11:46,700 each is unique. 149 00:11:46,700 --> 00:11:48,830 It gives measurements of its width. 150 00:11:48,830 --> 00:11:53,120 It gives dimensions of the density around the street. 151 00:11:53,120 --> 00:11:55,670 Whereas, Bill Hillier's proposition, 152 00:11:55,670 --> 00:12:01,760 which I'll discuss next Tuesday amongst others, Space Syntax, 153 00:12:01,760 --> 00:12:04,550 looks at streets merely as linkages 154 00:12:04,550 --> 00:12:07,580 in a topological environment in which, 155 00:12:07,580 --> 00:12:12,230 if you understand the geometry of flows, 156 00:12:12,230 --> 00:12:15,880 you can really make generalizations about crime, 157 00:12:15,880 --> 00:12:19,110 about social behavior, and so on. 158 00:12:19,110 --> 00:12:24,740 So there's often this tension between what is conservative 159 00:12:24,740 --> 00:12:29,030 unique to be reproduced and what is 160 00:12:29,030 --> 00:12:32,030 generalizable from that phenomenon. 161 00:12:32,030 --> 00:12:38,000 I was on a review last January at Columbia 162 00:12:38,000 --> 00:12:42,200 for a project that students did in Palestine, 163 00:12:42,200 --> 00:12:45,980 in a small town in Palestine, sponsored 164 00:12:45,980 --> 00:12:54,860 by RIFAC, an NGO which is trying to establish Palestinian space. 165 00:12:54,860 --> 00:12:59,480 And this was a project for a small town which 166 00:12:59,480 --> 00:13:02,810 had had no economic base, but the students 167 00:13:02,810 --> 00:13:08,180 were privileged to study the town 168 00:13:08,180 --> 00:13:13,460 and come up with suggestions for a new economic base. 169 00:13:13,460 --> 00:13:18,080 All the students took the form of the city, that is, 170 00:13:18,080 --> 00:13:22,190 the architecture-- and even although it was only partially 171 00:13:22,190 --> 00:13:23,630 still in use-- 172 00:13:23,630 --> 00:13:27,080 as the basis for its reconstruction. 173 00:13:27,080 --> 00:13:30,440 There was something about its history, its presence, 174 00:13:30,440 --> 00:13:34,620 which needed to be adapted. 175 00:13:34,620 --> 00:13:44,840 So if some student, excuse me, proposed to start a herbal drug 176 00:13:44,840 --> 00:13:51,335 industry, they did it in an adapted shelter already there. 177 00:13:51,335 --> 00:13:55,400 If somebody wanted to start a new business in vinegar 178 00:13:55,400 --> 00:14:00,720 production in Palestine, they took an old building, 179 00:14:00,720 --> 00:14:04,820 and if it was not large enough, they added a small fraction. 180 00:14:04,820 --> 00:14:07,550 One student came along and said the biggest 181 00:14:07,550 --> 00:14:10,910 problem in this town is garbage collection. 182 00:14:10,910 --> 00:14:13,340 Garbage is not properly collected, 183 00:14:13,340 --> 00:14:18,670 and decays, and causes a very unhealthy feeling in the town. 184 00:14:18,670 --> 00:14:22,970 I'm proposing a new garbage collection center 185 00:14:22,970 --> 00:14:25,160 on the outskirts of the town. 186 00:14:25,160 --> 00:14:28,370 And he designed a mechanical instrument which 187 00:14:28,370 --> 00:14:30,650 collected garbage effectively. 188 00:14:33,800 --> 00:14:38,850 Everybody attacked the student who did this project. 189 00:14:38,850 --> 00:14:42,260 The historical sense of conservation 190 00:14:42,260 --> 00:14:48,230 and conservative appropriation was so overwhelming 191 00:14:48,230 --> 00:14:53,390 that the student who proposed that a city may 192 00:14:53,390 --> 00:14:58,040 be a place in which people can learn, and can grow, 193 00:14:58,040 --> 00:14:59,210 and change-- 194 00:14:59,210 --> 00:15:07,620 they do anyway-- there wasn't much debate about the student's 195 00:15:07,620 --> 00:15:08,850 proposition. 196 00:15:08,850 --> 00:15:09,930 I kept quiet. 197 00:15:09,930 --> 00:15:12,330 I should have said something. 198 00:15:12,330 --> 00:15:16,740 But it was in New York, and I felt like a provincial 199 00:15:16,740 --> 00:15:17,710 from Boston. 200 00:15:17,710 --> 00:15:21,570 So I had nothing to say. 201 00:15:21,570 --> 00:15:25,560 But it was a very good example of the postulation 202 00:15:25,560 --> 00:15:35,730 that the uniqueness of the historical process 203 00:15:35,730 --> 00:15:40,290 can withstand notions of change and growth. 204 00:15:42,870 --> 00:15:46,470 The fascination with the concept of learning from-- 205 00:15:46,470 --> 00:15:50,310 of being instructed by what you see 206 00:15:50,310 --> 00:15:53,460 has suggested the word "reading." 207 00:15:53,460 --> 00:15:56,275 Reading is used in a number of cases. 208 00:15:56,275 --> 00:16:00,360 It's used by the architect Giancarlo De Carlo 209 00:16:00,360 --> 00:16:07,660 in the ILAUD schools in Italy. 210 00:16:07,660 --> 00:16:14,250 And so I took two examples by two great men. 211 00:16:14,250 --> 00:16:22,480 John Ruskin says, number one, the vocation is seeing. 212 00:16:22,480 --> 00:16:27,820 He talks about growing up in a small village in England, 213 00:16:27,820 --> 00:16:32,350 and there was nothing to do. 214 00:16:32,350 --> 00:16:38,080 So he looked through the windows to the house next door 215 00:16:38,080 --> 00:16:42,688 and started learning how to pattern the brickwork. 216 00:16:42,688 --> 00:16:45,130 Now, this is something that I suppose 217 00:16:45,130 --> 00:16:47,170 not everybody should do. 218 00:16:47,170 --> 00:16:50,780 I think we have more intelligent things to do. 219 00:16:50,780 --> 00:16:56,620 But he talks about seeing as a constructive phenomenon, 220 00:16:56,620 --> 00:17:01,580 as an intellectual activity, which can be learned. 221 00:17:01,580 --> 00:17:03,880 It's not automatic. 222 00:17:07,210 --> 00:17:10,089 From a visual to the social-political, 223 00:17:10,089 --> 00:17:14,589 he's a professor of poetry at Oxford University, one 224 00:17:14,589 --> 00:17:19,420 of the most important chairs in British academia, 225 00:17:19,420 --> 00:17:23,319 and slowly turns his attention to the fact 226 00:17:23,319 --> 00:17:26,589 that there's a distinction in Britain 227 00:17:26,589 --> 00:17:28,195 between poverty and wealth. 228 00:17:31,700 --> 00:17:36,950 His last books, Fors Clavigera, is subtitled, Lessons 229 00:17:36,950 --> 00:17:39,058 to the Working Men of England. 230 00:17:42,270 --> 00:17:44,420 He takes students on Sunday morning 231 00:17:44,420 --> 00:17:48,050 to work and building camps outside Oxford. 232 00:17:51,280 --> 00:17:54,460 He sees that reading is a combination 233 00:17:54,460 --> 00:17:56,420 of aesthetic and moral values. 234 00:18:00,250 --> 00:18:03,160 He says you have to externalize the consequences 235 00:18:03,160 --> 00:18:04,440 of your experience. 236 00:18:04,440 --> 00:18:09,470 Therefore, he writes these books and has 237 00:18:09,470 --> 00:18:12,630 something to say about reading and memory-- 238 00:18:12,630 --> 00:18:16,700 how memory is an important part of the selective part of what 239 00:18:16,700 --> 00:18:20,810 you understand. 240 00:18:20,810 --> 00:18:24,375 Friedrich Engels comes to Manchester as a teenager. 241 00:18:27,170 --> 00:18:32,270 He's amazed at his contact with reality. 242 00:18:32,270 --> 00:18:34,460 First of all, you have to understand that it's 243 00:18:34,460 --> 00:18:37,160 important to observe reality. 244 00:18:37,160 --> 00:18:43,400 Reality, in his case, was the most degraded conditions 245 00:18:43,400 --> 00:18:49,220 of housing and sewage that the world had probably ever seen. 246 00:18:49,220 --> 00:18:51,810 He says, you do it with your body-- 247 00:18:51,810 --> 00:18:56,540 with eyes, ears, nose, and feet. 248 00:18:56,540 --> 00:19:00,680 Number three, you do it through the eyes of others. 249 00:19:00,680 --> 00:19:09,140 He had a girlfriend who was an illiterate Irish worker. 250 00:19:09,140 --> 00:19:12,710 He walked through the town with her 251 00:19:12,710 --> 00:19:14,870 and would ask her questions. 252 00:19:14,870 --> 00:19:18,530 I don't understand why the window's always closed. 253 00:19:18,530 --> 00:19:20,840 And she would say, the windows are closed, 254 00:19:20,840 --> 00:19:24,206 because the smell is too whatever. 255 00:19:27,050 --> 00:19:38,630 And then you communicate what you've read, 256 00:19:38,630 --> 00:19:41,660 and you go even further. 257 00:19:41,660 --> 00:19:47,810 In his case, Manchester was not a unique city for him. 258 00:19:47,810 --> 00:19:50,450 He was reading a phenomenon which 259 00:19:50,450 --> 00:19:54,760 had universal implications. 260 00:19:54,760 --> 00:19:59,620 It's interesting that under Marx and Engels, 261 00:19:59,620 --> 00:20:06,520 and as late as 1917, cities were not considered as significant 262 00:20:06,520 --> 00:20:08,905 in the Marxist dialogue. 263 00:20:12,590 --> 00:20:15,050 They were larger issues at hand. 264 00:20:15,050 --> 00:20:19,760 You had to change the structure of society, and as a byproduct, 265 00:20:19,760 --> 00:20:22,790 cities would change automatically. 266 00:20:22,790 --> 00:20:26,480 That doesn't work that way, but so was the doctrine 267 00:20:26,480 --> 00:20:30,800 of early Soviet Marxism. 268 00:20:30,800 --> 00:20:34,550 And Engels himself changed. 269 00:20:34,550 --> 00:20:38,810 There's a wonderful book called Marx's General recently 270 00:20:38,810 --> 00:20:45,230 published by an English writer, which discusses Engel's 271 00:20:45,230 --> 00:20:48,365 history in relation to Hegel. 272 00:20:51,590 --> 00:20:57,210 Engels was in the army in Berlin doing nothing. 273 00:20:57,210 --> 00:21:01,080 So he attended a class in religious philosophy taught 274 00:21:01,080 --> 00:21:02,780 at the university. 275 00:21:02,780 --> 00:21:07,040 At that time, religion was a fundamental component 276 00:21:07,040 --> 00:21:09,950 of the study of philosophy. 277 00:21:09,950 --> 00:21:21,200 In his class was Kierkegaard, Bakunin, the Russian anarchist. 278 00:21:21,200 --> 00:21:23,870 I forget the names of the others-- 279 00:21:23,870 --> 00:21:30,260 people who were there at the same time questioning whether-- 280 00:21:30,260 --> 00:21:36,500 Hegel's work had just been started to be published. 281 00:21:36,500 --> 00:21:43,970 And Engels, again, started adapting 282 00:21:43,970 --> 00:21:50,780 the purest Marxist doctrines to the reality 283 00:21:50,780 --> 00:21:55,970 of the situations he was facing in different parts of Europe 284 00:21:55,970 --> 00:21:58,160 as he traveled. 285 00:21:58,160 --> 00:22:06,710 The notion of historians who claim the uniqueness of cities 286 00:22:06,710 --> 00:22:10,280 is widespread. 287 00:22:10,280 --> 00:22:15,920 Writing about Venice, Mary McCarthy 288 00:22:15,920 --> 00:22:19,400 says, there's nothing more to be said about Venice, 289 00:22:19,400 --> 00:22:25,130 and quotes Napoleon, Raskin, Shelly, Proust all saying 290 00:22:25,130 --> 00:22:27,230 the same things. 291 00:22:27,230 --> 00:22:29,690 And says, I envy your writing about Venice, 292 00:22:29,690 --> 00:22:31,040 says the newcomer. 293 00:22:31,040 --> 00:22:33,750 I pity you, says the old hand. 294 00:22:33,750 --> 00:22:37,310 There's something a little boring about saying 295 00:22:37,310 --> 00:22:40,760 the same things about a city. 296 00:22:40,760 --> 00:22:44,840 Walter Benjamin is a much more lively character, 297 00:22:44,840 --> 00:22:49,560 the German philosopher who died in 1940, 298 00:22:49,560 --> 00:22:52,400 but wrote essays on cities. 299 00:22:52,400 --> 00:22:57,680 His essay on Naples is particularly interesting. 300 00:22:57,680 --> 00:23:02,180 Nevertheless, no city can fade in the few hours of Sunday rest 301 00:23:02,180 --> 00:23:05,080 more rapidly than Naples. 302 00:23:05,080 --> 00:23:09,110 Here's a theory of the speed at which the city changes 303 00:23:09,110 --> 00:23:12,140 its form from working to rest. 304 00:23:12,140 --> 00:23:14,060 I don't know of any other person who's 305 00:23:14,060 --> 00:23:19,190 ever observed the phenomenon of the speed 306 00:23:19,190 --> 00:23:23,760 that cities change from one form to another. 307 00:23:23,760 --> 00:23:32,280 He says, the well-known list of the seven deadly sins located 308 00:23:32,280 --> 00:23:35,730 pride in Genoa, avarice in Florence, 309 00:23:35,730 --> 00:23:39,570 voluptuousness in Venice, anger in Bologna, greed in Milan, 310 00:23:39,570 --> 00:23:42,880 envy in Rome, and indolence in Naples. 311 00:23:46,240 --> 00:23:52,800 He then goes on to talk about what indolence means, 312 00:23:52,800 --> 00:23:55,740 and porosity of buildings, and builds 313 00:23:55,740 --> 00:24:00,900 an incredible central structure of this place. 314 00:24:00,900 --> 00:24:04,280 What you do with it is not important. 315 00:24:04,280 --> 00:24:09,390 It's that a city is something as particular as the gestures 316 00:24:09,390 --> 00:24:11,340 that people make with their hands. 317 00:24:11,340 --> 00:24:14,790 He claims that the gestures that people make with their hands, 318 00:24:14,790 --> 00:24:17,820 with their nose, with their eyes, with their breasts 319 00:24:17,820 --> 00:24:19,440 in Naples is unique. 320 00:24:23,300 --> 00:24:25,520 AUDIENCE: So? 321 00:24:25,520 --> 00:24:31,760 JULIAN BEINART: So the extraordinary thing 322 00:24:31,760 --> 00:24:38,000 about Walter Benjamin is this tension between this attitude 323 00:24:38,000 --> 00:24:42,980 of finding the deep structural explanation of cities 324 00:24:42,980 --> 00:24:46,070 and being a Marxist himself. 325 00:24:46,070 --> 00:24:48,920 As a Marxist, like Engels, he would only 326 00:24:48,920 --> 00:24:54,380 see Naples as a generalized phenomenon of human experience. 327 00:24:56,960 --> 00:24:59,090 He would look for where poor people live, 328 00:24:59,090 --> 00:25:03,690 and where the forces of production were, and so on. 329 00:25:03,690 --> 00:25:07,970 Instead, he's attracted by this uniqueness phenomenon. 330 00:25:07,970 --> 00:25:10,100 Everything is unique. 331 00:25:10,100 --> 00:25:14,780 He writes about Paris in similar ways. 332 00:25:14,780 --> 00:25:17,210 Muchly is interesting in Walter Benjamin, 333 00:25:17,210 --> 00:25:19,580 over whom I'm a big fan. 334 00:25:19,580 --> 00:25:22,550 So I shouldn't criticize him too much. 335 00:25:22,550 --> 00:25:27,470 Here's the architectural critic, Norberg-Schulz, 336 00:25:27,470 --> 00:25:33,200 the Norwegian critic, who has made a-- who wrote a book 337 00:25:33,200 --> 00:25:37,100 called Genius Loci, which suggests, again, 338 00:25:37,100 --> 00:25:39,470 that every town has a genius-- 339 00:25:39,470 --> 00:25:40,460 not every town. 340 00:25:40,460 --> 00:25:43,700 He only selects a couple, and then 341 00:25:43,700 --> 00:25:46,940 tries to explain what the genius is. 342 00:25:46,940 --> 00:25:49,740 So in Prague, we read the following. 343 00:25:49,740 --> 00:25:52,520 "The fascination of Prague resides, first of all, 344 00:25:52,520 --> 00:25:55,100 in a strong sense of mystery." 345 00:25:55,100 --> 00:25:59,990 Big deal, you know? 346 00:25:59,990 --> 00:26:03,260 You have the feeling it is possible to penetrate 347 00:26:03,260 --> 00:26:05,420 ever deeper into things. 348 00:26:05,420 --> 00:26:09,890 "Streetscapes, courtyards, have an endless inside." 349 00:26:09,890 --> 00:26:14,840 Now, that is maybe a profound observation of Prague. 350 00:26:14,840 --> 00:26:21,620 But as a theory, it is terribly little. 351 00:26:21,620 --> 00:26:27,200 It's very much-- in Khartoum-- 352 00:26:29,740 --> 00:26:33,130 he says, those who visit Khartoum are immediately struck 353 00:26:33,130 --> 00:26:36,960 by strong quality of place. 354 00:26:36,960 --> 00:26:42,860 Well, am I not struck by a strong quality of place if I 355 00:26:42,860 --> 00:26:44,720 enter Léon? 356 00:26:44,720 --> 00:26:49,460 Or is there a measurement of the amount of quality that is 357 00:26:49,460 --> 00:26:51,770 in Khartoum as opposed to Léon? 358 00:26:51,770 --> 00:26:54,290 There is no attempt to generalize about cities 359 00:26:54,290 --> 00:26:57,120 whatsoever. 360 00:26:57,120 --> 00:26:59,700 If science is about generalization, 361 00:26:59,700 --> 00:27:02,465 this is not anywhere near scientific. 362 00:27:02,465 --> 00:27:07,740 It's maybe what architects do in reading or artists do, 363 00:27:07,740 --> 00:27:13,590 which raises a very big unresolved conflict in urbanism 364 00:27:13,590 --> 00:27:19,680 between if it is a function of art or a function of science. 365 00:27:19,680 --> 00:27:27,450 Theories are especially seen as functions, as estimates, 366 00:27:27,450 --> 00:27:32,370 of knowledge in science and in social science. 367 00:27:32,370 --> 00:27:34,350 We have not resolved-- 368 00:27:34,350 --> 00:27:43,720 to propose, as we end up with this piece by the physicists, 369 00:27:43,720 --> 00:27:47,510 on what is important to resolve in urbanism, 370 00:27:47,510 --> 00:27:51,030 it may be that the distinction is 371 00:27:51,030 --> 00:27:54,510 between learning about cities through art history. 372 00:27:54,510 --> 00:27:58,050 Because if you look at Prague, you think of looking 373 00:27:58,050 --> 00:27:59,430 at Cézanne. 374 00:27:59,430 --> 00:28:03,900 And although Rudolf Arnheim, the gestalt psychologist, says, 375 00:28:03,900 --> 00:28:07,080 that if you look at Cézanne, if you'd follow the following path 376 00:28:07,080 --> 00:28:11,160 with your eyes from red to yellow and back to green, 377 00:28:11,160 --> 00:28:16,740 and these forms all fit into a scientific explanation of what 378 00:28:16,740 --> 00:28:18,915 you see, that's bullshit. 379 00:28:25,210 --> 00:28:29,560 We accept certain truths through art. 380 00:28:29,560 --> 00:28:33,550 The patterning of music is studied 381 00:28:33,550 --> 00:28:37,240 and available for your understanding, 382 00:28:37,240 --> 00:28:40,860 but it is an intuitive experiential phenomenon. 383 00:28:44,080 --> 00:28:49,750 Much of these explanations are of that order. 384 00:28:49,750 --> 00:28:53,650 They don't attempt to compare the amount of mystery 385 00:28:53,650 --> 00:28:55,720 in Rome versus the amount of mystery 386 00:28:55,720 --> 00:28:57,955 in Khartoum or in Prague. 387 00:29:00,470 --> 00:29:02,140 Let's go on very quickly. 388 00:29:05,308 --> 00:29:08,370 We've got half an hour. 389 00:29:08,370 --> 00:29:10,570 There's a lot of reading available 390 00:29:10,570 --> 00:29:13,160 about each of these sectors. 391 00:29:13,160 --> 00:29:16,810 So I will propose that, if you're 392 00:29:16,810 --> 00:29:22,300 interested in any of these bodies of work, 393 00:29:22,300 --> 00:29:25,570 either contact me, and I'll give you more reading. 394 00:29:25,570 --> 00:29:28,078 That's if you need to do more reading. 395 00:29:28,078 --> 00:29:29,620 There's enough in this class already. 396 00:29:36,790 --> 00:29:43,375 The next group of work is number two, ecology of people. 397 00:29:48,010 --> 00:29:50,350 The idea that people, as a group, 398 00:29:50,350 --> 00:29:55,960 behave in ways which pattern a city 399 00:29:55,960 --> 00:30:04,420 is most likely to be associated, in the first instance, 400 00:30:04,420 --> 00:30:12,590 with the work of the German sociologists from 1900 to 1950. 401 00:30:12,590 --> 00:30:16,030 I'll just briefly mention them and talk a little bit 402 00:30:16,030 --> 00:30:18,760 about what the fundamental thinking 403 00:30:18,760 --> 00:30:23,410 about the nature of cities was. 404 00:30:23,410 --> 00:30:28,210 Max Weber in 1905-- 405 00:30:28,210 --> 00:30:34,300 the three are Max Weber, Georg Simmel, S-I-M-M-E-L, 406 00:30:34,300 --> 00:30:35,515 and Oswald Spengler. 407 00:30:40,180 --> 00:30:43,900 For them, cities were relatively new. 408 00:30:47,225 --> 00:30:50,700 You must remember that cities only grew at about 1% 409 00:30:50,700 --> 00:31:00,810 per annum in Europe until 1930, when parts of England 410 00:31:00,810 --> 00:31:03,450 grew ballistically at about 10%. 411 00:31:06,960 --> 00:31:11,850 But it involved a change in character. 412 00:31:11,850 --> 00:31:18,330 For Weber, a city is essentially a human settlement, which 413 00:31:18,330 --> 00:31:21,240 could be called cosmopolitan. 414 00:31:21,240 --> 00:31:24,750 It contains a variety of life styles 415 00:31:24,750 --> 00:31:27,370 and different sorts of individuals 416 00:31:27,370 --> 00:31:30,060 which have to coexist. 417 00:31:30,060 --> 00:31:35,130 He argues that the best way for them coexisting 418 00:31:35,130 --> 00:31:40,350 is to establish ideal typical conditions in which each state 419 00:31:40,350 --> 00:31:43,710 of urban life most neatly fulfills 420 00:31:43,710 --> 00:31:48,720 the social capacities inherent in any of the one groups. 421 00:31:51,230 --> 00:31:58,970 So for him, an ideal city would be the creation 422 00:31:58,970 --> 00:32:07,880 of a phenomenon, which has a large amount of distinction 423 00:32:07,880 --> 00:32:18,500 in it, and the maintenance of these social structures, 424 00:32:18,500 --> 00:32:23,540 competing social structures, the capacity to understand when 425 00:32:23,540 --> 00:32:27,110 they change and when they don't. 426 00:32:27,110 --> 00:32:37,080 He believes in the kind of city that he was examining 427 00:32:37,080 --> 00:32:40,330 in Germany at the time. 428 00:32:40,330 --> 00:32:45,090 Georg Simmel noticed another phenomenon of the emerging city 429 00:32:45,090 --> 00:32:46,260 form. 430 00:32:46,260 --> 00:32:52,400 And that is that it put pressure on the individual existence. 431 00:32:52,400 --> 00:32:57,720 The access of psychic stimulation in a large city 432 00:32:57,720 --> 00:32:59,430 would cause withdrawal. 433 00:33:01,990 --> 00:33:03,720 This is a strange concept. 434 00:33:07,470 --> 00:33:12,090 It maybe associates itself with people 435 00:33:12,090 --> 00:33:15,540 like Richard Sennett, who's spoken 436 00:33:15,540 --> 00:33:20,910 about the fall of public man in similar ways. 437 00:33:20,910 --> 00:33:27,300 That if in Simmel's case it was the withdrawal 438 00:33:27,300 --> 00:33:32,010 of people from the excessive stimulation of the city, 439 00:33:32,010 --> 00:33:35,850 in Richard Sennett's case, it's the change 440 00:33:35,850 --> 00:33:41,730 in the capacity of people from maintaining 441 00:33:41,730 --> 00:33:45,030 a state of publicness to a preference 442 00:33:45,030 --> 00:33:46,920 for a state of privacy. 443 00:33:46,920 --> 00:33:52,740 I disagree with Sennett to some extent about that observation. 444 00:33:52,740 --> 00:33:57,330 As I'll deal with in a subsequent class, 445 00:33:57,330 --> 00:34:03,090 the notion of privacy was foreign to people 446 00:34:03,090 --> 00:34:05,340 until the middle of the Middle Ages. 447 00:34:08,969 --> 00:34:14,204 But Simmel talks of this. 448 00:34:19,010 --> 00:34:23,708 "Whenever large numbers of people live together, 449 00:34:23,708 --> 00:34:26,239 there's a selfhood, a human identity, 450 00:34:26,239 --> 00:34:29,960 which tries to project itself in the process. 451 00:34:29,960 --> 00:34:38,780 Just as an example of this phenomenon, 452 00:34:38,780 --> 00:34:44,179 if you would wish to withdraw in Manhattan 453 00:34:44,179 --> 00:34:52,520 from the intense energy that the city has produced, 454 00:34:52,520 --> 00:34:56,960 why would you have glass on the windows of your apartment? 455 00:34:56,960 --> 00:34:59,210 There's been some study of the amount 456 00:34:59,210 --> 00:35:02,660 of glass and residential accommodation, even 457 00:35:02,660 --> 00:35:04,370 to the extent that-- 458 00:35:04,370 --> 00:35:15,770 what is the file, old film, where 459 00:35:15,770 --> 00:35:18,380 this man is in his apartment and he's 460 00:35:18,380 --> 00:35:20,163 hurt his leg so he can't move? 461 00:35:20,163 --> 00:35:21,080 AUDIENCE: Rear Window. 462 00:35:21,080 --> 00:35:22,640 JULIAN BEINART: Rear Window, yes. 463 00:35:22,640 --> 00:35:24,790 Who was the actor? 464 00:35:24,790 --> 00:35:25,790 AUDIENCE: Jimmy Stewart. 465 00:35:25,790 --> 00:35:28,370 JULIAN BEINART: Jimmy Stewart, yeah. 466 00:35:28,370 --> 00:35:34,220 Sorry, my memory is falling apart. 467 00:35:34,220 --> 00:35:42,260 The phenomenon that you can use glass, as glass 468 00:35:42,260 --> 00:35:49,010 gives you both the option of withdrawing and being public. 469 00:35:49,010 --> 00:35:52,370 It's an extraordinary idea. 470 00:35:52,370 --> 00:35:56,820 That if you really-- if Simmel were absolutely correct, 471 00:35:56,820 --> 00:35:59,870 we would all live in [INAUDIBLE],, or in gardens, 472 00:35:59,870 --> 00:36:02,990 or anything establishing ourselves 473 00:36:02,990 --> 00:36:08,780 outside of the turmoil of urbanism. 474 00:36:08,780 --> 00:36:12,320 The glass apartment block in Manhattan, 475 00:36:12,320 --> 00:36:19,460 allowing people to see you when you're ready to be seen, 476 00:36:19,460 --> 00:36:26,930 but mostly available, is a curious phenomenon. 477 00:36:26,930 --> 00:36:31,910 Simmel might have had something to say about it. 478 00:36:31,910 --> 00:36:38,810 Oswald Spengler had a typical negative view 479 00:36:38,810 --> 00:36:46,250 of the future of the emerging large city. 480 00:36:46,250 --> 00:36:52,220 He said, very popularly understood at the time, 481 00:36:52,220 --> 00:36:54,950 that there was something wrong, that it needed 482 00:36:54,950 --> 00:37:01,550 to be curtailed in size, that it's increasing 483 00:37:01,550 --> 00:37:05,480 heterogeneity was a phenomenon which was dangerous. 484 00:37:09,650 --> 00:37:14,760 He believed that cities would be destroyed. 485 00:37:14,760 --> 00:37:16,610 And I don't know what would replace them. 486 00:37:16,610 --> 00:37:22,310 But he had this similar idea to others in England, 487 00:37:22,310 --> 00:37:27,920 that London would be dispersed and into smaller communities, 488 00:37:27,920 --> 00:37:30,380 largely in the rural areas of England. 489 00:37:34,160 --> 00:37:37,340 A complete nonsense of an idea, but one which-- 490 00:37:42,060 --> 00:37:47,130 none of these people attempted to understand the sociology 491 00:37:47,130 --> 00:37:50,190 of an actual city. 492 00:37:50,190 --> 00:37:51,600 They were generalists. 493 00:37:54,120 --> 00:37:58,860 I'm reminded a little in reading of this of a book, which 494 00:37:58,860 --> 00:38:09,462 was recently published by Edward Glaser at Harvard, called The-- 495 00:38:09,462 --> 00:38:10,960 AUDIENCE: Triumph of the City? 496 00:38:10,960 --> 00:38:12,752 JULIAN BEINART: --Triumph of the City, yes. 497 00:38:17,310 --> 00:38:20,850 There isn't really time to discuss this book at length. 498 00:38:20,850 --> 00:38:23,190 But at some time in this class, I would like to. 499 00:38:23,190 --> 00:38:25,980 So ask me a question about it when we have more time. 500 00:38:28,800 --> 00:38:32,595 Its analysis is very much in the old school manner. 501 00:38:35,380 --> 00:38:40,520 But if Spengler proposes that cities will disappear 502 00:38:40,520 --> 00:38:44,690 because they are too crude, and they've 503 00:38:44,690 --> 00:38:51,200 deviated from decent human principles, 504 00:38:51,200 --> 00:38:54,260 Glaser sees the future of interaction 505 00:38:54,260 --> 00:39:01,860 in the modern city as the essence of its being. 506 00:39:01,860 --> 00:39:07,430 He proposes that a good city would intensify into action, 507 00:39:07,430 --> 00:39:10,220 because it's economically important, and so on, 508 00:39:10,220 --> 00:39:13,310 and so on, and so on. 509 00:39:13,310 --> 00:39:14,570 He's not an architect. 510 00:39:14,570 --> 00:39:18,860 So his penchant for tall buildings, 511 00:39:18,860 --> 00:39:24,530 residential buildings, are indiscriminate of how 512 00:39:24,530 --> 00:39:27,710 they are designed, and how they are modulated, and so on. 513 00:39:27,710 --> 00:39:32,180 It reminds me of what's happening in China, 514 00:39:32,180 --> 00:39:33,380 amongst other places. 515 00:39:35,900 --> 00:39:42,330 The Chicago school were a bunch of sociologists 516 00:39:42,330 --> 00:39:44,210 who took a look at the American city 517 00:39:44,210 --> 00:39:48,070 for the first time analytically. 518 00:39:48,070 --> 00:39:55,190 The concentric model of Park, Burgess, and McKenzie 519 00:39:55,190 --> 00:40:00,080 postulated a city, which is much like a plant phenomenon, 520 00:40:00,080 --> 00:40:05,300 that it increased and changed as it expanded outwards. 521 00:40:05,300 --> 00:40:10,100 That the city consisted of rings, annular rings, 522 00:40:10,100 --> 00:40:17,270 of social classes in which the dynamic was 523 00:40:17,270 --> 00:40:20,690 that you would move from the center to the outwards. 524 00:40:20,690 --> 00:40:27,500 And the inner ring is the center, the central business 525 00:40:27,500 --> 00:40:28,040 district. 526 00:40:28,040 --> 00:40:30,110 Immediately surrounding it is something 527 00:40:30,110 --> 00:40:33,860 called the zone in transition. 528 00:40:33,860 --> 00:40:41,660 Beyond that is the zone of workingmen's houses. 529 00:40:41,660 --> 00:40:45,020 Beyond that is the zone of better residences. 530 00:40:45,020 --> 00:40:47,790 Beyond that is the commuter zone. 531 00:40:47,790 --> 00:40:51,050 The zone of transition, that immediate zone 532 00:40:51,050 --> 00:40:54,980 around the central business area, is of interest. 533 00:40:54,980 --> 00:40:58,310 What distinguishes the American city from the European Union 534 00:40:58,310 --> 00:41:01,450 city in the grossest sense is the American city 535 00:41:01,450 --> 00:41:02,990 is city of immigration. 536 00:41:02,990 --> 00:41:06,090 The European city is quite the opposite. 537 00:41:06,090 --> 00:41:10,760 It's only been open to immigration recently, 538 00:41:10,760 --> 00:41:13,790 and it's struggling like hell to deal with it. 539 00:41:13,790 --> 00:41:15,950 America's has gone through a couple 540 00:41:15,950 --> 00:41:20,720 of years, if not forever, dealing with the problem 541 00:41:20,720 --> 00:41:22,280 of immigration. 542 00:41:22,280 --> 00:41:25,520 And the zone of transition in the American city 543 00:41:25,520 --> 00:41:28,880 was that undetermined zone, before 544 00:41:28,880 --> 00:41:32,480 the settled residential population took 545 00:41:32,480 --> 00:41:35,220 place, a zone in transition. 546 00:41:35,220 --> 00:41:38,065 The obvious phenomenon was that there's 547 00:41:38,065 --> 00:41:44,660 a zone which had a more rapid turnover than any other zone 548 00:41:44,660 --> 00:41:46,070 in the city. 549 00:41:46,070 --> 00:41:49,160 And this has actually been the zone 550 00:41:49,160 --> 00:41:52,460 which is been a zone of immigration, 551 00:41:52,460 --> 00:41:57,620 a zone of building of bypasses past the central business area. 552 00:41:57,620 --> 00:42:02,390 In fact, if anything, it's a better flex zone 553 00:42:02,390 --> 00:42:09,410 around the center of a city than the park system of Adelaide, 554 00:42:09,410 --> 00:42:12,560 which the organic model is so enthused about. 555 00:42:20,180 --> 00:42:22,760 There was a gentleman called Homer Hoyt, who 556 00:42:22,760 --> 00:42:25,400 during the Depression years in Washington 557 00:42:25,400 --> 00:42:30,560 did nothing else, without a computer, calculated rent 558 00:42:30,560 --> 00:42:33,590 payments in cities in the United States, 559 00:42:33,590 --> 00:42:35,405 particularly in Chicago. 560 00:42:35,405 --> 00:42:37,400 He'd written a book about Chicago, 561 00:42:37,400 --> 00:42:41,810 from which he developed an alternative model 562 00:42:41,810 --> 00:42:43,310 to the concentric model. 563 00:42:43,310 --> 00:42:47,300 That is, he claims that the city is really patterned 564 00:42:47,300 --> 00:42:50,000 on the basis of sectors. 565 00:42:50,000 --> 00:42:58,250 Sectors allow people to move towards higher income areas, 566 00:42:58,250 --> 00:43:02,690 towards open space, towards mountains, towards higher 567 00:43:02,690 --> 00:43:07,070 natural phenomenon. 568 00:43:07,070 --> 00:43:12,920 And therefore, you get a division of people, 569 00:43:12,920 --> 00:43:19,460 rather than occupying space concentrically, occupying space 570 00:43:19,460 --> 00:43:21,170 through wedges. 571 00:43:21,170 --> 00:43:24,680 Now, if you look at the diagram of Atlanta, 572 00:43:24,680 --> 00:43:29,270 you'll see some justice for his phenomenon. 573 00:43:29,270 --> 00:43:31,970 It applies equally well to Johannesburg. 574 00:43:31,970 --> 00:43:34,910 And when I do a case study with you of Johannesburg, 575 00:43:34,910 --> 00:43:39,440 you will see how the sector theory worked very well 576 00:43:39,440 --> 00:43:42,110 up to a certain point in the construction, 577 00:43:42,110 --> 00:43:46,100 of the organization, of the city. 578 00:43:46,100 --> 00:43:57,520 In the case of Atlanta, you have, as I've said before, 579 00:43:57,520 --> 00:44:07,020 the phenomenon here based on rent payments, 580 00:44:07,020 --> 00:44:08,450 justifying the Hoyt model. 581 00:44:14,730 --> 00:44:23,100 The Chicago school took place in the great city of Chicago. 582 00:44:23,100 --> 00:44:26,670 Chicago has been called the Shock City 583 00:44:26,670 --> 00:44:29,550 because of its rapid emergence. 584 00:44:29,550 --> 00:44:35,610 Chicago didn't exist in 1830, and in 1893, 585 00:44:35,610 --> 00:44:38,910 at the time of the Chicago World's Fair, 586 00:44:38,910 --> 00:44:43,890 125th of all the world's railroads passed Chicago. 587 00:44:43,890 --> 00:44:45,420 It's the most rapidly-- 588 00:44:49,440 --> 00:44:51,930 and by virtue of its rapid growth, which 589 00:44:51,930 --> 00:44:58,230 wasn't accompanied by government, or good government, 590 00:44:58,230 --> 00:45:02,040 you have a phenomenon, which I'll look into more carefully 591 00:45:02,040 --> 00:45:05,280 when we discuss the case of Chicago. 592 00:45:05,280 --> 00:45:13,110 Chicago is the most phenomenal 19th century city of all. 593 00:45:13,110 --> 00:45:18,540 And it's interesting that Chicago 594 00:45:18,540 --> 00:45:21,690 is the place where the first academic study 595 00:45:21,690 --> 00:45:24,680 of the social grouping of cities should take place. 596 00:45:28,790 --> 00:45:31,230 A lot of things happened for the first time in Chicago. 597 00:45:35,910 --> 00:45:41,880 Economics has paid a serious but very scant 598 00:45:41,880 --> 00:45:44,070 interest in location. 599 00:45:44,070 --> 00:45:48,900 As Paul Krugman points out, the new textbook 600 00:45:48,900 --> 00:45:54,360 by Joseph Stiglitz at Harvard, which is 1,000 pages in length, 601 00:45:54,360 --> 00:45:57,240 has the word "city" mentioned once 602 00:45:57,240 --> 00:46:01,410 and the word "location" mentioned once. 603 00:46:01,410 --> 00:46:05,640 If you want to read about it, read Krugman's views 604 00:46:05,640 --> 00:46:09,300 on why economics has not included location 605 00:46:09,300 --> 00:46:11,340 as a serious input. 606 00:46:11,340 --> 00:46:16,400 Read the pieces that I've suggested you read. 607 00:46:16,400 --> 00:46:22,710 There are two pieces by Krugman explaining 608 00:46:22,710 --> 00:46:29,250 why modern economics after Marshall 609 00:46:29,250 --> 00:46:33,870 managed very well on optimization theories 610 00:46:33,870 --> 00:46:39,000 without including the cost of transportation or the cost 611 00:46:39,000 --> 00:46:42,810 and benefits of location. 612 00:46:42,810 --> 00:46:46,300 He claims there's been a weakness in economic geography, 613 00:46:46,300 --> 00:46:51,240 which has tried to measure up to the purity of economics, 614 00:46:51,240 --> 00:46:55,020 of modern economics, and gives some 615 00:46:55,020 --> 00:47:01,350 suggestions for maybe a new post-real estate 616 00:47:01,350 --> 00:47:03,670 study of location. 617 00:47:03,670 --> 00:47:10,680 The classic allocation models are still, number one, 618 00:47:10,680 --> 00:47:12,130 at the regional level. 619 00:47:12,130 --> 00:47:19,410 The work of von Thunen, the German agronomist, 620 00:47:19,410 --> 00:47:22,650 who argued that the cost of transportation 621 00:47:22,650 --> 00:47:26,520 was a phenomenon in allocating land use. 622 00:47:26,520 --> 00:47:47,830 He claims that, as I've said before, around a center, 623 00:47:47,830 --> 00:47:50,500 the spatial distribution of crops 624 00:47:50,500 --> 00:47:53,740 occurs according to the yield per unit 625 00:47:53,740 --> 00:47:55,795 area around a central town. 626 00:47:59,710 --> 00:48:03,880 You end up with dairy in the center, 627 00:48:03,880 --> 00:48:09,820 orchards in the next ring, grain in the next ring, 628 00:48:09,820 --> 00:48:13,000 cattle in the next ring, and forestry furthest 629 00:48:13,000 --> 00:48:14,800 from the center. 630 00:48:14,800 --> 00:48:17,230 This is not only a function of land values, 631 00:48:17,230 --> 00:48:20,470 but a function of the cost of transporting goods 632 00:48:20,470 --> 00:48:21,120 to the center. 633 00:48:24,220 --> 00:48:28,840 Southern Germany, where von Thunen, and Christaller, 634 00:48:28,840 --> 00:48:32,290 and people like that, economic geographers' work 635 00:48:32,290 --> 00:48:34,690 was essentially flat. 636 00:48:34,690 --> 00:48:41,140 And with population growth occurring at a very low rate, 637 00:48:41,140 --> 00:48:46,030 the notion of a single-centered city or a distributed pattern 638 00:48:46,030 --> 00:48:49,480 of cities at regular intervals was appropriate. 639 00:48:52,840 --> 00:48:59,860 Christaller based his economic geography on the idea 640 00:48:59,860 --> 00:49:05,470 that they were central places, and you 641 00:49:05,470 --> 00:49:10,450 can see this phenomenon in Northern Italy today. 642 00:49:13,180 --> 00:49:19,550 If you move eastward from Milan, 30 miles from Milan is Brescia. 643 00:49:19,550 --> 00:49:22,960 30 miles from Brescia is Verona. 644 00:49:22,960 --> 00:49:27,220 Vicenza is 30 miles from Verona. 645 00:49:27,220 --> 00:49:32,620 Pádova is 30 miles, and Venice at the end of this horizontal 646 00:49:32,620 --> 00:49:35,310 east-west axis. 647 00:49:35,310 --> 00:49:40,750 If you go from Milano to Bologna, 648 00:49:40,750 --> 00:49:45,400 you have 30 miles to Pavia, then 30 miles to Parma, 649 00:49:45,400 --> 00:49:48,970 30 miles to Reggio, 30 miles to Moderna, 650 00:49:48,970 --> 00:49:51,370 and 30 miles to Bologna. 651 00:49:51,370 --> 00:49:55,480 On the axis from Bologna in the big triangle to Venice, 652 00:49:55,480 --> 00:49:58,960 [INAUDIBLE] Ferrara, which is about 30 miles from Bologna, 653 00:49:58,960 --> 00:50:01,510 and then historical land patterns 654 00:50:01,510 --> 00:50:04,150 didn't allow this phenomenon to take place. 655 00:50:12,930 --> 00:50:17,490 There was a big exhibition in Italy entitled, 656 00:50:17,490 --> 00:50:21,310 "The Culture of 999 Cities." 657 00:50:21,310 --> 00:50:24,690 What is interesting about Christaller's interpretation 658 00:50:24,690 --> 00:50:30,690 for contemporary times is that a place like Moderna 659 00:50:30,690 --> 00:50:34,440 produces the headquarters of Lamborghini, Ferrari, 660 00:50:34,440 --> 00:50:39,990 and Maserati and still is a relatively small population 661 00:50:39,990 --> 00:50:40,630 center. 662 00:50:40,630 --> 00:50:44,520 If you go to Cortona, near Arezzo, 663 00:50:44,520 --> 00:50:49,170 it has a bunch of things. 664 00:50:49,170 --> 00:50:52,740 Almost every small town has a center 665 00:50:52,740 --> 00:50:56,740 and a condition of uniqueness. 666 00:50:56,740 --> 00:51:00,300 The genius of the Italian landscape 667 00:51:00,300 --> 00:51:04,113 is in not developing-- 668 00:51:04,113 --> 00:51:06,120 well, so they argue. 669 00:51:06,120 --> 00:51:07,710 They haven't developed large cities. 670 00:51:07,710 --> 00:51:11,520 Milano is not a village, but the Italians 671 00:51:11,520 --> 00:51:15,480 are free to interpret things very freely. 672 00:51:15,480 --> 00:51:21,030 But the genius of being able to be small, and yet to be unique, 673 00:51:21,030 --> 00:51:23,340 and to-- 674 00:51:23,340 --> 00:51:28,830 I was asked to come to Ferrara once, 675 00:51:28,830 --> 00:51:34,020 because they started a new school of architecture 676 00:51:34,020 --> 00:51:35,940 run by a friend of mine. 677 00:51:35,940 --> 00:51:40,770 And the city was going to give them a building, 678 00:51:40,770 --> 00:51:43,710 and they wanted this small group of people 679 00:51:43,710 --> 00:51:45,660 to choose the building. 680 00:51:45,660 --> 00:51:48,990 They took us to a building, which 681 00:51:48,990 --> 00:51:53,820 they had given to the man who developed 682 00:51:53,820 --> 00:51:57,150 the first electronic system for the movies, 683 00:51:57,150 --> 00:52:01,470 and it made a film which was very popular at the time, 684 00:52:01,470 --> 00:52:06,210 possible prior to all of this computer stuff. 685 00:52:06,210 --> 00:52:09,270 There was a sense in this town that there 686 00:52:09,270 --> 00:52:16,110 was an appreciation of its capacity to be located locally. 687 00:52:16,110 --> 00:52:19,300 You bought food from the shop on the corner, 688 00:52:19,300 --> 00:52:22,230 but yet it had an international aspiration. 689 00:52:22,230 --> 00:52:24,870 And put together, all of these places 690 00:52:24,870 --> 00:52:27,705 constituted the Italian urban culture. 691 00:52:31,700 --> 00:52:36,860 It's a strange phenomenon, but it's the phenomenon 692 00:52:36,860 --> 00:52:38,640 which is worth noticing. 693 00:52:38,640 --> 00:52:42,800 And it's a phenomenon which organizes 694 00:52:42,800 --> 00:52:45,590 the city and the country in a different way 695 00:52:45,590 --> 00:52:49,640 than the very large city and the very large spatial hinterland. 696 00:52:52,730 --> 00:52:56,210 It's worth talking about as we develop this class a bit 697 00:52:56,210 --> 00:52:59,750 further, but it emanates from Christaller's work-- 698 00:52:59,750 --> 00:53:08,040 C-H-R-I-S-T-A-L-L-E-R. 699 00:53:08,040 --> 00:53:12,960 The third application of the classical economic model 700 00:53:12,960 --> 00:53:19,560 is in the distribution of activities in the center, 701 00:53:19,560 --> 00:53:25,430 in the central city itself. 702 00:53:25,430 --> 00:53:28,440 Here you will have the phenomenon, 703 00:53:28,440 --> 00:53:31,860 which seems very crude still at the moment, 704 00:53:31,860 --> 00:53:35,910 that they are two variables. 705 00:53:35,910 --> 00:53:38,250 The one is the amount of rent, the money 706 00:53:38,250 --> 00:53:41,880 you want to pay in rent at one access, 707 00:53:41,880 --> 00:53:45,450 and another axis which says the distance that you 708 00:53:45,450 --> 00:53:47,400 can be from the center. 709 00:53:47,400 --> 00:53:51,390 The argument being, that in the center, you pay higher rates, 710 00:53:51,390 --> 00:53:54,750 and the further out you go, the lower rent you pay. 711 00:53:54,750 --> 00:53:58,390 But you have to pay the increased transportation costs. 712 00:53:58,390 --> 00:54:04,620 So that balance will produce suburban and then 713 00:54:04,620 --> 00:54:08,430 exurban locations, depending on the improvement 714 00:54:08,430 --> 00:54:11,490 of the transportation system outwards. 715 00:54:11,490 --> 00:54:16,290 That you'll get movements of people 716 00:54:16,290 --> 00:54:23,850 as they classically make more income from the center 717 00:54:23,850 --> 00:54:25,290 outwards. 718 00:54:25,290 --> 00:54:31,320 And this is the working class people 719 00:54:31,320 --> 00:54:36,900 in this graph come in the former curve in the center, where they 720 00:54:36,900 --> 00:54:41,790 balance minimal costs of transportation 721 00:54:41,790 --> 00:54:45,660 and public transportation with low, medium rents, 722 00:54:45,660 --> 00:54:47,310 and so on, and so on. 723 00:54:47,310 --> 00:54:51,165 [INAUDIBLE] is here at MIT and the father of regional science. 724 00:54:54,480 --> 00:54:58,650 He's one of the formulators of this theory. 725 00:54:58,650 --> 00:55:02,460 Alonso at Harvard did versions of it-- 726 00:55:02,460 --> 00:55:04,065 Wingo, [INAUDIBLE] and others. 727 00:55:11,440 --> 00:55:14,790 Let me just say a few words about the others in this list. 728 00:55:30,470 --> 00:55:37,460 There have been attempts to modulate the former cities 729 00:55:37,460 --> 00:55:43,520 by analogies to physics, population potential being 730 00:55:43,520 --> 00:55:44,020 the-- 731 00:55:53,657 --> 00:55:55,260 let me get this correct. 732 00:55:55,260 --> 00:55:56,890 I often make a mistake with-- 733 00:56:00,976 --> 00:56:04,730 well, forget about it. 734 00:56:04,730 --> 00:56:07,040 We haven't got time to go into the great difference 735 00:56:07,040 --> 00:56:11,180 between the population potential moral, gravity 736 00:56:11,180 --> 00:56:14,630 models, communications, networks, and topology. 737 00:56:14,630 --> 00:56:18,470 I should add to that more current work 738 00:56:18,470 --> 00:56:25,220 in fractal and chaos theory, which 739 00:56:25,220 --> 00:56:30,500 if you want to read about fractals, read [INAUDIBLE].. 740 00:56:30,500 --> 00:56:35,630 But I estimate these as having less 741 00:56:35,630 --> 00:56:42,080 of a life in determining current practice in urbanism than any 742 00:56:42,080 --> 00:56:42,840 of the others. 743 00:56:42,840 --> 00:56:44,750 They're somewhat academic. 744 00:56:44,750 --> 00:56:50,750 Gravity models, Forester's urban systems, all of these form 745 00:56:50,750 --> 00:56:57,410 an attempt to use notions of proximity, 746 00:56:57,410 --> 00:57:03,800 not notions of income, to locate shopping centers, 747 00:57:03,800 --> 00:57:08,240 to make modifications to the American city. 748 00:57:10,790 --> 00:57:17,540 The question of decisions, linked decisions, 749 00:57:17,540 --> 00:57:20,300 again, here we have to look at the work of people 750 00:57:20,300 --> 00:57:23,660 like Forester, who claims that-- 751 00:57:23,660 --> 00:57:27,140 we'll see the same phenomenon in the work of John [INAUDIBLE] 752 00:57:27,140 --> 00:57:29,690 on Tuesday. 753 00:57:29,690 --> 00:57:35,990 John [INAUDIBLE] claim is that the built world is really 754 00:57:35,990 --> 00:57:39,110 the outcome of agreements that are 755 00:57:39,110 --> 00:57:41,910 made between different people. 756 00:57:41,910 --> 00:57:45,620 There is no city but the one that rests on 757 00:57:45,620 --> 00:57:49,370 made agreements, and tries to determine 758 00:57:49,370 --> 00:57:53,270 from made agreements what could be the form of a city which 759 00:57:53,270 --> 00:57:55,220 takes that into account. 760 00:57:55,220 --> 00:58:04,730 Jay Forester argues that social systems are currently complex, 761 00:58:04,730 --> 00:58:09,380 and single answers are not predictable or should not 762 00:58:09,380 --> 00:58:10,340 be expected. 763 00:58:13,190 --> 00:58:16,100 Urban systems are based on information 764 00:58:16,100 --> 00:58:21,110 about the important decisions that largely businessmen 765 00:58:21,110 --> 00:58:24,080 make in the American city. 766 00:58:24,080 --> 00:58:26,390 He hasn't asked anybody or studied 767 00:58:26,390 --> 00:58:29,030 data of any significance. 768 00:58:29,030 --> 00:58:34,570 He comes to simplistic resolutions, 769 00:58:34,570 --> 00:58:39,680 that the more the economy grows, the more poor people 770 00:58:39,680 --> 00:58:42,150 you will have, and things of this kind. 771 00:58:42,150 --> 00:58:49,010 And I'm not doing him justice in one sentence. 772 00:58:49,010 --> 00:58:52,220 Then the arena of conflict, which is really quite 773 00:58:52,220 --> 00:58:54,410 an interesting phenomenon. 774 00:58:57,920 --> 00:59:00,380 Much of the models that I've gone through 775 00:59:00,380 --> 00:59:04,910 have assumed that the city is composed of benign people 776 00:59:04,910 --> 00:59:08,150 making benign agreements amongst each other. 777 00:59:10,720 --> 00:59:14,470 Park and Burgess's model of concentric circles 778 00:59:14,470 --> 00:59:18,490 means that it all, like a plant, takes place 779 00:59:18,490 --> 00:59:24,610 without the plant having any items of conflict or conflict 780 00:59:24,610 --> 00:59:26,410 as a phenomenon. 781 00:59:26,410 --> 00:59:30,160 Whereas, in fact, for many centuries, 782 00:59:30,160 --> 00:59:33,430 the resolution of conflicts through the building of walls 783 00:59:33,430 --> 00:59:36,550 was a fundamental aspect of city form. 784 00:59:36,550 --> 00:59:43,035 [INAUDIBLE],, at the end of the 17th century, 785 00:59:43,035 --> 00:59:47,290 or the beginning of the 18th century, 786 00:59:47,290 --> 00:59:51,580 could design a town which could not be penetrated. 787 00:59:51,580 --> 00:59:54,220 So his reputation was-- 788 00:59:54,220 --> 00:59:59,680 Blondell taught fortification to architecture students 789 00:59:59,680 --> 01:00:02,455 at the academy in Paris. 790 01:00:05,830 --> 01:00:09,460 The people who have taken up conflict 791 01:00:09,460 --> 01:00:12,220 really exist on the left. 792 01:00:12,220 --> 01:00:16,150 There's David Gordon, who explains American suburbia 793 01:00:16,150 --> 01:00:20,350 by the movement of bosses to get away 794 01:00:20,350 --> 01:00:23,830 from workers in labor strife. 795 01:00:23,830 --> 01:00:29,020 You get Manual Castells in his pre-communication theory 796 01:00:29,020 --> 01:00:35,200 mode, who is a young Spanish Marxist who 797 01:00:35,200 --> 01:00:38,560 wrote something called The Wild City, in which he claims 798 01:00:38,560 --> 01:00:43,720 that suburbanisation is the function of surplus commodities 799 01:00:43,720 --> 01:00:47,980 rather than of any other form of economy. 800 01:00:56,160 --> 01:01:01,110 David Harvey, arguing that it's very difficult 801 01:01:01,110 --> 01:01:06,000 to produce social equity under capitalism, 802 01:01:06,000 --> 01:01:08,790 because there will always be obstacles 803 01:01:08,790 --> 01:01:12,540 in the way of maximizing return on capital. 804 01:01:18,420 --> 01:01:26,140 Lefebvre, the French sociologist who ran a journal called 805 01:01:26,140 --> 01:01:26,860 [FRENCH]-- 806 01:01:29,820 --> 01:01:33,860 I was the editor of [NON-ENGLISH],, 807 01:01:33,860 --> 01:01:37,130 Space and Society, which was-- 808 01:01:37,130 --> 01:01:41,765 I was part editor, following Lefebvre's example. 809 01:01:46,000 --> 01:01:49,960 All of these are looking at the way in which conflict 810 01:01:49,960 --> 01:01:53,860 can be assumed and resolved as part 811 01:01:53,860 --> 01:01:56,260 of the real existence of a city. 812 01:01:59,650 --> 01:02:04,060 Giancarlo De Carlo, Italian architect, 813 01:02:04,060 --> 01:02:11,410 used to argue that one of the functions of-- 814 01:02:11,410 --> 01:02:14,890 one of the ways of displaying conflict 815 01:02:14,890 --> 01:02:20,200 was to allow architecture to build 816 01:02:20,200 --> 01:02:23,680 in its appropriate fashion, but to depict 817 01:02:23,680 --> 01:02:27,340 the elements of conflict that are available, 818 01:02:27,340 --> 01:02:31,630 and to heighten the sense of conflicts in a city, 819 01:02:31,630 --> 01:02:35,740 but also to make it possible, in a kind of anarchic sense, 820 01:02:35,740 --> 01:02:39,460 for that city's resolutions to be 821 01:02:39,460 --> 01:02:44,760 made within a framework of understood conflict-- 822 01:02:44,760 --> 01:02:49,000 resolvable conflict, not revolution. 823 01:02:49,000 --> 01:02:56,330 So these attempts at plans sometimes 824 01:02:56,330 --> 01:03:00,090 manifest this, or at least. 825 01:03:00,090 --> 01:03:03,240 If you look at the workers' housing in Terni, 826 01:03:03,240 --> 01:03:08,940 for instance, you can see elements of this proposition, 827 01:03:08,940 --> 01:03:12,330 but it's very vague, and very generalized, 828 01:03:12,330 --> 01:03:15,510 and not really a powerful theory. 829 01:03:18,300 --> 01:03:20,940 The Marxists have not produced cities 830 01:03:20,940 --> 01:03:29,280 which have externalized the conflict notions which they 831 01:03:29,280 --> 01:03:31,665 examined in the [INAUDIBLE]. 832 01:03:31,665 --> 01:03:35,010 Their cities are much like any city in the world. 833 01:03:35,010 --> 01:03:38,400 And Chinese Marxism is certainly not 834 01:03:38,400 --> 01:03:41,190 producing very much from which we can 835 01:03:41,190 --> 01:03:44,295 learn about new city growth. 836 01:03:47,130 --> 01:03:51,870 So this particular theory is waiting too. 837 01:03:51,870 --> 01:03:54,650 Most of these theories-- 838 01:03:54,650 --> 01:04:00,590 let me just end off at once with this piece 839 01:04:00,590 --> 01:04:06,560 I gave you on the physics of-- 840 01:04:06,560 --> 01:04:08,000 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]? 841 01:04:08,000 --> 01:04:08,960 JULIAN BEINART: Hmm? 842 01:04:08,960 --> 01:04:10,810 AUDIENCE: The work of [INAUDIBLE]?? 843 01:04:10,810 --> 01:04:11,890 JULIAN BEINART: Yes. 844 01:04:11,890 --> 01:04:12,880 Do you know his work? 845 01:04:12,880 --> 01:04:13,690 AUDIENCE: Yeah. 846 01:04:13,690 --> 01:04:17,120 JULIAN BEINART: What do you think of it? 847 01:04:17,120 --> 01:04:20,806 AUDIENCE: I think it brings in an interesting perspective 848 01:04:20,806 --> 01:04:26,860 of all these findings on the efficiency of [INAUDIBLE] 849 01:04:26,860 --> 01:04:30,350 innovation of investment versus how the population grows 850 01:04:30,350 --> 01:04:35,876 at the same time the per capita wealth it generates. 851 01:04:35,876 --> 01:04:41,993 But it seems to be a bit reductionist to me. 852 01:04:41,993 --> 01:04:43,535 JULIAN BEINART: You know, it starts-- 853 01:04:43,535 --> 01:04:45,520 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] universal model. 854 01:04:45,520 --> 01:04:48,850 JULIAN BEINART: Yeah, it starts separating out 855 01:04:48,850 --> 01:04:54,340 what optimizes the functioning of a city in terms 856 01:04:54,340 --> 01:04:58,420 of transportation, land use, crime, 857 01:04:58,420 --> 01:05:02,360 and so on, which are important components to understand. 858 01:05:02,360 --> 01:05:07,540 But he doesn't accept the city as an environment which 859 01:05:07,540 --> 01:05:12,190 has speciality, or experience, or any of the things 860 01:05:12,190 --> 01:05:15,430 that art history-- 861 01:05:15,430 --> 01:05:18,070 I'm beginning to think more and more, that in order 862 01:05:18,070 --> 01:05:22,150 to understand urbanism, you need to study art history 863 01:05:22,150 --> 01:05:26,380 and perhaps forget about all of this stuff. 864 01:05:26,380 --> 01:05:36,010 But we all know that every city is unique. 865 01:05:36,010 --> 01:05:40,350 That's all we talk about when we talk about cities. 866 01:05:40,350 --> 01:05:43,830 But focusing on those differences misses the point. 867 01:05:43,830 --> 01:05:45,270 Sure, there are differences. 868 01:05:45,270 --> 01:05:46,740 But different from what? 869 01:05:46,740 --> 01:05:49,770 We found the what. 870 01:05:49,770 --> 01:05:53,250 There's an arrogance about the security 871 01:05:53,250 --> 01:06:01,050 of physics as applied to complex phenomena, such as a city. 872 01:06:01,050 --> 01:06:05,910 It may be that this is a new generation of thinking. 873 01:06:05,910 --> 01:06:08,700 I mean, they're doing it at Oxford, and Santa Fe, 874 01:06:08,700 --> 01:06:12,120 and there are more and more groups of complex theorists 875 01:06:12,120 --> 01:06:14,430 emerging. 876 01:06:14,430 --> 01:06:15,630 I have my doubts. 877 01:06:15,630 --> 01:06:18,210 I'll be too old to see any of this anyway. 878 01:06:18,210 --> 01:06:21,630 So I leave it to you. 879 01:06:21,630 --> 01:06:25,500 On Tuesday, we will look at, for the last time, 880 01:06:25,500 --> 01:06:30,540 in Part 1 of the subject, at four or five theories 881 01:06:30,540 --> 01:06:33,480 of architects, contemporary architects, who 882 01:06:33,480 --> 01:06:36,060 are recently deceased architects, 883 01:06:36,060 --> 01:06:44,010 who've made attempts, such as Space Syntax, so on, and so on. 884 01:06:44,010 --> 01:06:48,960 And then start from scratch with the Industrial Revolution 885 01:06:48,960 --> 01:06:53,750 and see what we can learn by looking carefully at phenomena.