WEBVTT 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:02.520 The following content is provided under a Creative 00:00:02.520 --> 00:00:03.970 Commons license. 00:00:03.970 --> 00:00:06.360 Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare 00:00:06.360 --> 00:00:10.660 continue to offer high quality educational resources for free. 00:00:10.660 --> 00:00:13.350 To make a donation or view additional materials 00:00:13.350 --> 00:00:15.810 from hundreds of MIT courses, visit 00:00:15.810 --> 00:00:17.875 mitopencourseware@ocw.mit.edu. 00:00:27.270 --> 00:00:32.049 JULIAN BEINART: The piece that I've had handed out to you 00:00:32.049 --> 00:00:39.790 covers the trajectory that we will follow from 1 to 7. 00:00:46.700 --> 00:00:50.420 Let me make a comment about the formal structure 00:00:50.420 --> 00:00:51.810 of these examples. 00:00:55.490 --> 00:00:59.810 The grid is a universal language. 00:00:59.810 --> 00:01:05.330 It is used in the cosmic model in Xi'an in 190 BC. 00:01:05.330 --> 00:01:12.830 And it's used in the 1811 Manhattan extension plan. 00:01:12.830 --> 00:01:18.920 The assumption is, if one takes this too literally, 00:01:18.920 --> 00:01:23.240 is that the grid is a language which 00:01:23.240 --> 00:01:28.695 can perform its function in almost any context. 00:01:33.400 --> 00:01:35.140 That is possibly true. 00:01:35.140 --> 00:01:38.380 In each case, it requires one to ask questions 00:01:38.380 --> 00:01:41.830 about the nature of the grid-- its context, 00:01:41.830 --> 00:01:49.450 its size, its manifestation, what the contemporary culture 00:01:49.450 --> 00:01:52.690 was attempting to produce. 00:01:52.690 --> 00:01:56.830 The commissioners who laid out the 1811 Plan for Manhattan 00:01:56.830 --> 00:01:59.620 spoke in terms of trying to create 00:01:59.620 --> 00:02:04.540 the most everyday environment they could. 00:02:04.540 --> 00:02:06.700 What does every day mean to them? 00:02:06.700 --> 00:02:09.800 They're the examples of New Amsterdam, 00:02:09.800 --> 00:02:12.730 the Dutch settlement, and the British settlement, 00:02:12.730 --> 00:02:14.680 which followed. 00:02:14.680 --> 00:02:18.280 Wall Street, by the way, was the separation 00:02:18.280 --> 00:02:20.590 between the English and Dutch settlements. 00:02:26.070 --> 00:02:31.800 So the explanation for the centralized cosmic order 00:02:31.800 --> 00:02:36.720 of Xi'an and the same or similar use 00:02:36.720 --> 00:02:41.910 of a grid in Manhattan many years 00:02:41.910 --> 00:02:54.210 later with this second set of plans or plans for grids 00:02:54.210 --> 00:03:00.120 of many European center cities. 00:03:00.120 --> 00:03:02.970 They're all grids, but infinitely varied 00:03:02.970 --> 00:03:05.220 in size and dimension. 00:03:08.070 --> 00:03:19.000 The diagram is that of a Bastide town in the southwest. 00:03:19.000 --> 00:03:23.260 This one happens to be a town which divides the blocks up 00:03:23.260 --> 00:03:26.170 according to a diagonal measurement. 00:03:26.170 --> 00:03:31.630 I'll deal with that move more carefully. 00:03:31.630 --> 00:03:35.650 The next is a diagram, a fictitious diagram, 00:03:35.650 --> 00:03:43.000 of a Roman town showing the rectangularity which 00:03:43.000 --> 00:03:46.330 exists around the tying of a central knot 00:03:46.330 --> 00:03:49.780 by this subdivision of the blocks 00:03:49.780 --> 00:03:54.070 according to a horizontal east-west line 00:03:54.070 --> 00:04:01.420 and this north-south line, the Decumanus and the Cardo. 00:04:01.420 --> 00:04:04.630 And the second last-- 00:04:04.630 --> 00:04:10.270 the last is an example of contemporary fascination 00:04:10.270 --> 00:04:17.709 with linearity following the notion of machine performance. 00:04:22.120 --> 00:04:27.190 Henry Ford who probably advocated assembly line 00:04:27.190 --> 00:04:32.470 production more than any other industrialist in modern times 00:04:32.470 --> 00:04:38.230 when he wanted to make his own city in Muscle 00:04:38.230 --> 00:04:45.730 Shoals in Alabama, didn't use a linear system. 00:04:45.730 --> 00:04:49.930 Well, maybe-- there are very few plans of Muscle Shoals. 00:04:49.930 --> 00:04:55.740 But it was a long city which really interfaced 00:04:55.740 --> 00:04:58.150 agriculture and industry. 00:04:58.150 --> 00:05:02.950 Ford's notion was that America had 00:05:02.950 --> 00:05:05.530 gone wrong in building industrialism 00:05:05.530 --> 00:05:08.874 without agriculture. 00:05:08.874 --> 00:05:11.980 He's postured it for Muscle Shoals, which I'll 00:05:11.980 --> 00:05:14.110 discuss later in this class. 00:05:14.110 --> 00:05:16.690 It's interesting. 00:05:16.690 --> 00:05:22.240 Every person-- Henry Ford said, anybody who works for me 00:05:22.240 --> 00:05:26.530 should spend part of his time in a garden 00:05:26.530 --> 00:05:32.740 or in a creative agricultural performance of some kind. 00:05:36.880 --> 00:05:41.440 The example on the second to last page, 00:05:41.440 --> 00:05:46.690 Southwest Washington in plan, and our first notion 00:05:46.690 --> 00:05:52.210 that the city should be made up over time by points of interest 00:05:52.210 --> 00:05:56.410 based on the topography and on a diagonalized system 00:05:56.410 --> 00:06:01.240 of connection was opposed by Jefferson. 00:06:01.240 --> 00:06:04.330 Jefferson made an earlier plan which 00:06:04.330 --> 00:06:07.000 is very difficult to decipher but is 00:06:07.000 --> 00:06:12.550 longitudinal and rectangular. 00:06:12.550 --> 00:06:17.060 L'Enfant is quoted here as saying, how boring a grid plan 00:06:17.060 --> 00:06:17.560 is. 00:06:26.190 --> 00:06:30.670 "Grid plans are tiresome and insipid, however, answerable 00:06:30.670 --> 00:06:33.750 they may appear on paper or seducing 00:06:33.750 --> 00:06:37.740 as they may be on first aspect to the eyes," 00:06:37.740 --> 00:06:40.740 compared to Alexandria in 77, which 00:06:40.740 --> 00:06:43.800 was a rectangular plan, which was 00:06:43.800 --> 00:06:46.080 occupied right from the beginning 00:06:46.080 --> 00:06:53.110 and worked subsequently very well. 00:06:53.110 --> 00:06:56.520 So one of the aspects of the machine model, 00:06:56.520 --> 00:07:01.350 which this seems to suggest, is that it has 00:07:01.350 --> 00:07:05.520 a very high speed of return. 00:07:05.520 --> 00:07:12.090 You can have a plan in an extreme situation, which 00:07:12.090 --> 00:07:17.350 requires a minimal amount of surveying. 00:07:17.350 --> 00:07:21.000 It has a high aspect of legibility. 00:07:23.550 --> 00:07:28.380 According to Gestalt's theorist of urban form, 00:07:28.380 --> 00:07:32.250 they would say that it's because there is only one angle 00:07:32.250 --> 00:07:35.010 in a right angle intersection. 00:07:35.010 --> 00:07:38.430 Any other intersection involves more than one angle. 00:07:38.430 --> 00:07:42.090 And the basic fundamental law of visual economy, 00:07:42.090 --> 00:07:45.420 would suggest that you would prefer the security 00:07:45.420 --> 00:07:47.190 of the right angle. 00:07:47.190 --> 00:07:52.200 That is a linguistic assumption. 00:07:52.200 --> 00:07:56.860 And it's probably got a meta truth associated with it. 00:07:56.860 --> 00:08:02.130 It's not the only reason that this grid form 00:08:02.130 --> 00:08:06.570 appears in the machine model. 00:08:06.570 --> 00:08:11.220 The cosmic model, which we discussed last time, 00:08:11.220 --> 00:08:14.010 put forward the ideal of a crystalline city, 00:08:14.010 --> 00:08:19.050 stable and hierarchical, a magical microcosmos 00:08:19.050 --> 00:08:24.390 in which each part was fused into a perfectly ordered whole. 00:08:24.390 --> 00:08:29.190 If it changed at all, it did so only in this mechanical-- 00:08:29.190 --> 00:08:31.860 not in mechanical-- rhythmical, ordered, 00:08:31.860 --> 00:08:33.630 completely unchanging way. 00:08:37.120 --> 00:08:40.110 Thinking of the city as a practical machine on their own 00:08:40.110 --> 00:08:42.999 is an utterly different conception. 00:08:42.999 --> 00:08:45.450 A machine also has permanent parts, 00:08:45.450 --> 00:08:48.340 but the parts move and move each other. 00:08:48.340 --> 00:08:50.970 The machine can change, although it does so 00:08:50.970 --> 00:08:55.430 in some clearly predictable way. 00:08:55.430 --> 00:08:59.010 Stability is inherent in the parts, not necessarily 00:08:59.010 --> 00:09:00.660 in the whole. 00:09:00.660 --> 00:09:02.940 A whole grows by addition. 00:09:02.940 --> 00:09:07.270 The wider meaning is simply the sum of its parts. 00:09:07.270 --> 00:09:10.380 It can be taken apart, put together in reverse. 00:09:10.380 --> 00:09:12.690 Its pieces can be replaced. 00:09:12.690 --> 00:09:18.210 It is factual, functional, cool, not magical at all. 00:09:21.120 --> 00:09:26.030 This is a very basic statement, that you can arm machine 00:09:26.030 --> 00:09:28.820 with magical properties is perfectly 00:09:28.820 --> 00:09:31.040 possible for the human brain. 00:09:31.040 --> 00:09:33.410 We will see in the later examples 00:09:33.410 --> 00:09:43.800 where, in fact, this is an aspect of the machine model 00:09:43.800 --> 00:09:45.900 which appears much later. 00:09:45.900 --> 00:09:48.225 In its earliest times, it's very pure. 00:09:51.330 --> 00:09:58.620 The machine model occurs historically most often 00:09:58.620 --> 00:10:04.140 when its settlements are temporary, secondly when 00:10:04.140 --> 00:10:07.320 they have to be built in haste or being 00:10:07.320 --> 00:10:12.000 built for clear, limited practical aims. 00:10:12.000 --> 00:10:17.430 The expansion of Manhattan North of Houston Street 00:10:17.430 --> 00:10:20.760 invoked no magical properties. 00:10:20.760 --> 00:10:26.170 When the Rockefellers intervened and built Rockefeller Center, 00:10:26.170 --> 00:10:32.940 there was some sense they did so partly, historians claim, 00:10:32.940 --> 00:10:37.620 to maintain the hegemony over that part of Manhattan 00:10:37.620 --> 00:10:40.110 where their house was. 00:10:40.110 --> 00:10:44.130 Rockefeller Center can be seen to fit 00:10:44.130 --> 00:10:48.030 into the overall machine-like system of Manhattan, 00:10:48.030 --> 00:10:55.140 yet on its own it evokes larger cultural invocation. 00:10:55.140 --> 00:11:00.040 We'll talk more about that as we talk later on in this class 00:11:00.040 --> 00:11:03.300 about some of this. 00:11:09.360 --> 00:11:18.650 I said, it's most useful in temporary situations 00:11:18.650 --> 00:11:22.430 when the environment is built in haste, 00:11:22.430 --> 00:11:26.870 when it's built for clear of limited practical purposes. 00:11:26.870 --> 00:11:31.610 But it's also used to allocate land and resources quickly. 00:11:31.610 --> 00:11:36.500 There's a kind of built-in idea of equal distribution in mind 00:11:36.500 --> 00:11:38.360 as well. 00:11:38.360 --> 00:11:40.790 You'll recall Marx's comment which 00:11:40.790 --> 00:11:42.680 I made at the beginning of the class 00:11:42.680 --> 00:11:47.810 about the emerging distinction between country and city. 00:11:47.810 --> 00:11:50.720 What emerges as urbanization occurs 00:11:50.720 --> 00:11:54.800 is increasing gap in land value between anything 00:11:54.800 --> 00:11:58.840 that's urbanized and anything that ruralized. 00:12:01.760 --> 00:12:09.320 To pay back the enormous investment in labor, 00:12:09.320 --> 00:12:11.570 the Romans, for instance, paid back 00:12:11.570 --> 00:12:15.740 veterans who served in the army by land. 00:12:15.740 --> 00:12:21.380 It needed to subdivide the land in an equitable fashion. 00:12:21.380 --> 00:12:27.500 The word in English "lot," it refers to a plot of land 00:12:27.500 --> 00:12:30.410 has the same root as the word lottery. 00:12:30.410 --> 00:12:33.680 The lottery was used quite extensively 00:12:33.680 --> 00:12:36.140 in this equalization. 00:12:36.140 --> 00:12:43.460 So the machine model becomes a checkerboard in some sense 00:12:43.460 --> 00:12:52.400 in which you can give people the promise of land value, 00:12:52.400 --> 00:12:57.470 but you cannot exactly initiate a central point. 00:12:57.470 --> 00:13:00.320 There may be a central point the crossing of the Cardo 00:13:00.320 --> 00:13:04.700 and Decumanus, but that would be reserved for the Roman Forum, 00:13:04.700 --> 00:13:05.930 not for private land. 00:13:05.930 --> 00:13:13.340 In the Laws of the Indies, Los Angeles, 00:13:13.340 --> 00:13:16.550 the last of the Laws of in the Indies cities in the United 00:13:16.550 --> 00:13:23.480 States, the Central Plaza was 200 by 400 feet. 00:13:23.480 --> 00:13:25.990 And then the grid spread out from that. 00:13:29.150 --> 00:13:35.330 So this notion of a democratic distribution of urban land 00:13:35.330 --> 00:13:40.895 is fundamentally in the process of urbanizing at low cost-- 00:13:43.400 --> 00:13:46.590 conditional low cost. 00:13:46.590 --> 00:13:50.480 The cosmic model required enormous investments 00:13:50.480 --> 00:13:51.020 in defense. 00:13:56.230 --> 00:14:05.050 The first set of examples we look at are the Egyptian slave 00:14:05.050 --> 00:14:11.590 quarters built to promote the eternal life 00:14:11.590 --> 00:14:18.280 of the pharaonic cult. For reasons 00:14:18.280 --> 00:14:26.080 which are rather obscure, Egypt was not accompanied. 00:14:26.080 --> 00:14:30.700 Egypt's development from 3,000 BC onwards 00:14:30.700 --> 00:14:35.560 didn't involve internecine warfare, 00:14:35.560 --> 00:14:39.430 which meant that no investment need to be made 00:14:39.430 --> 00:14:43.240 in wars to defend a local site. 00:14:43.240 --> 00:14:46.480 Once you invest in the local site 00:14:46.480 --> 00:14:50.545 and pay for the cost of fortification, you don't move. 00:14:54.930 --> 00:14:57.660 Cairo was a much later phenomenon. 00:14:57.660 --> 00:15:04.110 In the 3,000 years until about 600 BC, 00:15:04.110 --> 00:15:07.680 there were no cities in Egypt. 00:15:07.680 --> 00:15:12.420 Thebes and Memphis were only temporary cities. 00:15:12.420 --> 00:15:19.350 They were built to enable the construction of the metamorph-- 00:15:19.350 --> 00:15:25.860 not metamorphosis-- the metaphysical structures 00:15:25.860 --> 00:15:29.280 for the post-life of the pharaoh. 00:15:29.280 --> 00:15:32.910 It took so much human labor to build 00:15:32.910 --> 00:15:44.420 one of these cosmic structures that the idea of labor and cost 00:15:44.420 --> 00:15:48.950 and materials didn't go into anything which we would 00:15:48.950 --> 00:15:51.200 describe as a normal city. 00:15:51.200 --> 00:15:53.480 It went instead into the business 00:15:53.480 --> 00:15:58.310 of construction and the environment for the afterlife. 00:15:58.310 --> 00:16:03.290 Yet that piece of the pharaonic complex, 00:16:03.290 --> 00:16:08.660 which housed the laborers, were based on a per striga 00:16:08.660 --> 00:16:11.930 system of block development, which 00:16:11.930 --> 00:16:14.490 we'll show you in the slide. 00:16:14.490 --> 00:16:14.990 But-- 00:16:18.210 --> 00:16:19.845 AUDIENCE: I have a question there. 00:16:19.845 --> 00:16:21.765 JULIAN BEINART: Yes. 00:16:21.765 --> 00:16:23.640 AUDIENCE: If I wanted to make of these cities 00:16:23.640 --> 00:16:27.000 the amount of resources that you have invested, 00:16:27.000 --> 00:16:31.020 both in time and effort, that cements 00:16:31.020 --> 00:16:32.300 the population [INAUDIBLE] 00:16:32.300 --> 00:16:33.720 JULIAN BEINART: Sure, sure. 00:16:33.720 --> 00:16:37.180 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE],, how does it work in cities like-- 00:16:37.180 --> 00:16:38.880 I'm thinking of Teotihuacan in Mexico, 00:16:38.880 --> 00:16:43.590 Fatehpur Sikri in India, that for this vast complex 00:16:43.590 --> 00:16:44.792 that eventually they-- 00:16:44.792 --> 00:16:46.500 JULIAN BEINART: Both of them disappeared. 00:16:49.620 --> 00:16:51.960 Fatehpur Sikri disappeared because 00:16:51.960 --> 00:16:55.920 of a fundamental problem of water, a miscalculation 00:16:55.920 --> 00:16:58.320 of the amount of salt in the water, 00:16:58.320 --> 00:16:59.940 which caused the city to be-- 00:17:03.200 --> 00:17:06.530 prior to modern times few cities have disappeared. 00:17:06.530 --> 00:17:09.859 Fatehpur Sikri is one of them. 00:17:09.859 --> 00:17:16.790 Teotihuacan under Mexican rule became a tourist artifact. 00:17:16.790 --> 00:17:20.060 The Aztec religion was no more fundamental 00:17:20.060 --> 00:17:24.589 after the Spanish hegemony. 00:17:24.589 --> 00:17:27.440 So it lost its fundamental purpose. 00:17:27.440 --> 00:17:31.290 We don't lose citizens easily anymore. 00:17:31.290 --> 00:17:37.100 And that is an argument will come about later in this class. 00:17:37.100 --> 00:17:41.780 But bear in it mind, the death of cities 00:17:41.780 --> 00:17:45.920 is really a phenomenon of pre-modern times. 00:17:45.920 --> 00:17:50.750 And both examples you give, in the one 00:17:50.750 --> 00:17:55.820 lost its fundamental mechanical system. 00:17:55.820 --> 00:18:00.200 Salty water is no longer the basis for a wonderful town 00:18:00.200 --> 00:18:03.080 that Fatehpur Sikri was. 00:18:03.080 --> 00:18:10.160 And Teotihuacan didn't have an adaptive mechanism 00:18:10.160 --> 00:18:13.040 to sustain its growth. 00:18:13.040 --> 00:18:16.460 It was no reason for it to grow. 00:18:16.460 --> 00:18:21.950 Tenochtitlan, on the other hand, had all of the capacity 00:18:21.950 --> 00:18:24.500 as a capital city on the lake. 00:18:24.500 --> 00:18:27.530 The combination of the mysterious quality 00:18:27.530 --> 00:18:33.890 of the original-- of the landing of the eagle 00:18:33.890 --> 00:18:35.195 in the center of the cosmos. 00:18:37.700 --> 00:18:42.020 That was taken over as an astronomic-- anyway, 00:18:42.020 --> 00:18:43.820 we'll talk more about this. 00:18:43.820 --> 00:18:45.290 You raised an interesting argument. 00:18:50.090 --> 00:18:56.230 According to the fifth century Greek historian Herodotus 00:18:56.230 --> 00:18:57.410 told-- 00:18:57.410 --> 00:19:00.950 I don't know how he knew this, but 100,000 men 00:19:00.950 --> 00:19:03.410 were engaged for three months each year 00:19:03.410 --> 00:19:10.670 for 20 years in moving blocks of stone to a pharaonic site. 00:19:13.710 --> 00:19:15.630 He claims that there must have been 00:19:15.630 --> 00:19:18.360 something like 4,000 workers which 00:19:18.360 --> 00:19:20.400 had to be housed permanently. 00:19:24.980 --> 00:19:27.740 So Leonard Woolley the archaeologist 00:19:27.740 --> 00:19:32.750 writing about Tell el-Amarna describes the housing 00:19:32.750 --> 00:19:37.220 as monotonously alike, each with its kitchen parlor in front, 00:19:37.220 --> 00:19:39.740 its cupboards and bedrooms behind, 00:19:39.740 --> 00:19:43.385 the very patina of mechanically devised industrial building. 00:19:46.070 --> 00:19:49.960 Same arguments made by other archaeologists. 00:19:49.960 --> 00:19:57.290 The distinction between enslavement of labor and cultic 00:19:57.290 --> 00:20:02.881 objectives is characteristic of this Egyptian phenomenon. 00:20:06.650 --> 00:20:11.540 A more elaborate system of using the machine model 00:20:11.540 --> 00:20:13.730 takes place in Hellenistic towns. 00:20:16.700 --> 00:20:19.970 In colonial situations, it's very unlikely 00:20:19.970 --> 00:20:23.360 that the mother city will be replicated 00:20:23.360 --> 00:20:25.850 in the colonial system. 00:20:25.850 --> 00:20:28.190 Delhi is not like London. 00:20:28.190 --> 00:20:35.000 The Laws of the Indies towns, Bogota, is not like Madrid. 00:20:35.000 --> 00:20:39.290 Athens had its own unique structure. 00:20:39.290 --> 00:20:41.570 It was an Iraqi site. 00:20:41.570 --> 00:20:46.340 It had limited agricultural resources. 00:20:46.340 --> 00:20:51.830 And it needed to expand as part of its Mediterranean expansion 00:20:51.830 --> 00:20:56.900 to the south to Africa, to the east to Asia Minor, 00:20:56.900 --> 00:21:03.065 and to the west eventually to Sicily and to Southern Italy. 00:21:08.330 --> 00:21:17.240 The building of colonial empire took 00:21:17.240 --> 00:21:23.060 place not because of the advantages of the mother city. 00:21:23.060 --> 00:21:26.900 In fact, fifth century democracy in Athens 00:21:26.900 --> 00:21:29.880 is unlikely to have been spread. 00:21:29.880 --> 00:21:34.430 There's one theory that says the Greek islands 00:21:34.430 --> 00:21:38.530 or the Greek colonial sites-- 00:21:38.530 --> 00:21:44.180 not islands-- were the result of the expansion of democracy. 00:21:44.180 --> 00:21:48.740 Democracy only occurred in the first century BC. 00:21:48.740 --> 00:21:56.420 The colonial expansion of the Greeks 00:21:56.420 --> 00:22:00.500 prior to that, the most important 00:22:00.500 --> 00:22:03.590 of the colonial towns, the grid-like towns, 00:22:03.590 --> 00:22:09.830 was built in 479 by the planner Hippodamus, who had a stutter, 00:22:09.830 --> 00:22:14.220 he had long hair, and had interesting political theories. 00:22:14.220 --> 00:22:17.000 He discovered the method of dividing cities 00:22:17.000 --> 00:22:19.190 and cut up Pireas. 00:22:19.190 --> 00:22:22.850 He's also known by some historians 00:22:22.850 --> 00:22:25.870 as the inventor of the gridiron and the father 00:22:25.870 --> 00:22:28.010 of town planning. 00:22:28.010 --> 00:22:33.200 Hippodamus, 479, Miletus-- this was the first time 00:22:33.200 --> 00:22:40.850 that a town was considered as a totality in a certain sense. 00:22:40.850 --> 00:22:44.330 All the parts of the town were in place, 00:22:44.330 --> 00:22:46.070 except perhaps for industry. 00:22:46.070 --> 00:22:48.470 One doesn't know from archaeology 00:22:48.470 --> 00:22:52.190 how much industry took place in these colonial times. 00:22:52.190 --> 00:22:55.160 They were essentially trading towns. 00:22:55.160 --> 00:22:59.330 Mumford argues that the grid serves 00:22:59.330 --> 00:23:05.660 as a method for making form of clarity of international trade. 00:23:08.360 --> 00:23:10.550 There's something to be said for having 00:23:10.550 --> 00:23:14.630 a recognizable or legible environment as you 00:23:14.630 --> 00:23:17.780 move into new environments. 00:23:17.780 --> 00:23:19.580 You put your stamp on a place. 00:23:19.580 --> 00:23:23.870 It's almost like building a Hilton Hotel, which hardly 00:23:23.870 --> 00:23:26.780 serves to emulate the environment 00:23:26.780 --> 00:23:29.210 or to affect the environment. 00:23:29.210 --> 00:23:33.530 But Mumford's argument is that modern trade requires 00:23:33.530 --> 00:23:36.680 a standardization of commodity. 00:23:36.680 --> 00:23:41.360 He later on, in talking about American grid of expediency, 00:23:41.360 --> 00:23:45.710 refers to capitalism and the grid of expediency 00:23:45.710 --> 00:23:51.960 as phenomenally correct and absolutely connected. 00:23:51.960 --> 00:23:55.740 Whether this is true, we will discuss 00:23:55.740 --> 00:23:59.010 as we go through this class. 00:23:59.010 --> 00:24:04.410 There's no absolute connection between capitalist theory 00:24:04.410 --> 00:24:05.870 and grid phenomena. 00:24:08.750 --> 00:24:15.240 I'll speak to this point a bit later in this class. 00:24:15.240 --> 00:24:18.210 The other towns of distinction were 00:24:18.210 --> 00:24:21.750 Olynthus in the Northern Greek peninsula. 00:24:21.750 --> 00:24:23.520 Oh no, it's not on the peninsula-- it's 00:24:23.520 --> 00:24:25.650 further north, north of Athens. 00:24:25.650 --> 00:24:29.250 And Priene, 300 BC. 00:24:29.250 --> 00:24:33.930 All of these involve the same phenomena 00:24:33.930 --> 00:24:36.000 shaped within the grid. 00:24:36.000 --> 00:24:40.080 And agora, a wall, a wall didn't conform 00:24:40.080 --> 00:24:44.190 to the grid-like system. 00:24:44.190 --> 00:24:47.490 These towns were built on defensible sites 00:24:47.490 --> 00:24:52.650 so that the wall system was informal and took account 00:24:52.650 --> 00:24:59.990 of the minimum ways of building infrastructure on sloping land. 00:24:59.990 --> 00:25:04.590 The British architect Peter Smithson in a talk on the BBC 00:25:04.590 --> 00:25:08.820 once argued against the classical vocabulary of Greece. 00:25:08.820 --> 00:25:10.710 He of course, is an architect who 00:25:10.710 --> 00:25:13.740 very interested in informalism. 00:25:13.740 --> 00:25:15.450 And he argued that one should really 00:25:15.450 --> 00:25:19.530 look at the Greek fortifications as a structure for one's 00:25:19.530 --> 00:25:25.260 intellectual heritage rather than the classical system 00:25:25.260 --> 00:25:28.080 of the Greeks. 00:25:28.080 --> 00:25:31.830 Cartilaginous whether he's right or wrong, and he won't tell us. 00:25:45.580 --> 00:25:52.345 There is no central axis made by the intersection of major axis. 00:25:52.345 --> 00:25:55.180 The agora was at the center. 00:25:55.180 --> 00:26:00.940 The grid was exemplified, again, as a grid of absolute equality. 00:26:07.360 --> 00:26:12.040 These towns have had lives beyond the Greek time. 00:26:12.040 --> 00:26:18.130 They were taken by Hellenism, by Romans, and most of them 00:26:18.130 --> 00:26:19.030 disappeared. 00:26:22.060 --> 00:26:29.470 They couldn't withstand-- the requirements have changed. 00:26:29.470 --> 00:26:33.970 Greece was replaced as a power in the Mediterranean 00:26:33.970 --> 00:26:37.540 and [INAUDIBLE] disappeared. 00:26:37.540 --> 00:26:45.540 But I have referred to Mumford. 00:26:45.540 --> 00:26:49.140 He says, I quote, "a new regularity and system 00:26:49.140 --> 00:26:56.430 in commercial affairs causes a formal order 00:26:56.430 --> 00:27:01.095 that when you are faced with the presence of a hill or curved 00:27:01.095 --> 00:27:04.590 bay, there's no effort to adaptation 00:27:04.590 --> 00:27:08.420 for change of pattern." 00:27:08.420 --> 00:27:14.840 A similar phenomenon occurs in the Roman Empire. 00:27:14.840 --> 00:27:16.340 I'm just going through these things 00:27:16.340 --> 00:27:19.730 very quickly because we're limited in time. 00:27:19.730 --> 00:27:24.140 Each of these examples has a literature available. 00:27:24.140 --> 00:27:29.900 If any of you want to follow the particular literature involved, 00:27:29.900 --> 00:27:34.370 just send me an email and I'll send you the references. 00:27:34.370 --> 00:27:38.330 It's impossible in a class like this to go into the details 00:27:38.330 --> 00:27:42.050 more than the general description. 00:27:42.050 --> 00:27:46.460 You have to assume that the generalizations are correct. 00:27:46.460 --> 00:27:48.860 It's my fault if they wrong. 00:27:55.650 --> 00:27:59.610 Built cities in an empire-- 00:27:59.610 --> 00:28:07.710 there was no empire to the extent in the world's history 00:28:07.710 --> 00:28:11.160 prior to the Roman Empire, not in scale. 00:28:11.160 --> 00:28:16.260 The Romans built something like 5,627 towns. 00:28:16.260 --> 00:28:18.720 Towns were often at the intersection 00:28:18.720 --> 00:28:21.435 of important points. 00:28:21.435 --> 00:28:29.640 Her empire stretched from Scotland to Slovakia 00:28:29.640 --> 00:28:36.390 to the Middle East to North Africa. 00:28:36.390 --> 00:28:39.060 Again, some of the same phenomena occurred. 00:28:39.060 --> 00:28:43.740 Timgad, the great Roman town in North Africa, 00:28:43.740 --> 00:28:45.990 is a town for veterans. 00:28:45.990 --> 00:28:48.630 It's subdivided into equal blocks 00:28:48.630 --> 00:28:52.520 to repay veterans for service. 00:28:52.520 --> 00:28:57.450 There are two characteristics of a Roman town. 00:28:57.450 --> 00:29:00.465 Again, the same phenomenon of the commercial order, 00:29:00.465 --> 00:29:03.450 of an international commercial order, 00:29:03.450 --> 00:29:08.420 creating the logic for formal order or local formal order. 00:29:11.450 --> 00:29:16.650 Germanicus, the Roman, general says, 00:29:16.650 --> 00:29:19.890 "I can feel I'm still in Rome if I 00:29:19.890 --> 00:29:24.660 journey from London or the beginning of London, Londinium, 00:29:24.660 --> 00:29:25.380 to Rome." 00:29:28.830 --> 00:29:34.200 The poet Rutilius Namatianus says, "a city of the far flung 00:29:34.200 --> 00:29:35.880 Earth you have made." 00:29:35.880 --> 00:29:39.180 So there are two compunctions in the Roman city. 00:29:39.180 --> 00:29:43.470 The one is to create a locus, a place of significance, 00:29:43.470 --> 00:29:45.150 much like a camp. 00:29:45.150 --> 00:29:50.460 For that already the connections to the space outside 00:29:50.460 --> 00:29:53.965 of the town is made by emphasizing the Cardo 00:29:53.965 --> 00:29:54.840 and Decumanus system. 00:30:00.260 --> 00:30:04.850 We have the Greek town, much like the magical town 00:30:04.850 --> 00:30:05.360 before it. 00:30:05.360 --> 00:30:08.060 It was an isolated phenomenon sitting 00:30:08.060 --> 00:30:16.610 on often very complex territory, and building a wall which 00:30:16.610 --> 00:30:18.780 fitted the territory's form. 00:30:24.470 --> 00:30:29.590 And although there may be a port here, as in the case of Priene, 00:30:29.590 --> 00:30:34.480 there was no attempt to connect this to anything else. 00:30:34.480 --> 00:30:36.925 There was no empire large enough. 00:30:36.925 --> 00:30:48.620 The Roman town was an empire town. 00:30:51.470 --> 00:30:57.090 The Cardo and Decumanus centralized in a forum 00:30:57.090 --> 00:31:03.010 and was an version of an encampment which 00:31:03.010 --> 00:31:05.330 could be built anywhere. 00:31:05.330 --> 00:31:08.560 It's the basis of London, it's the basis of Paris, 00:31:08.560 --> 00:31:11.860 it's the basis of Bratislava, it's 00:31:11.860 --> 00:31:20.130 the basis of 5,000 settlements. 00:31:20.130 --> 00:31:32.320 That's A. And we call this castrametation, 00:31:32.320 --> 00:31:35.320 a nominal phenomenon. 00:31:35.320 --> 00:31:40.750 That is to logically extend the marking of the territory 00:31:40.750 --> 00:31:42.490 outside the town. 00:31:42.490 --> 00:31:44.170 This is called centuriation. 00:31:48.274 --> 00:31:52.060 Sorry, you can't read my handwriting-- castrametation, 00:31:52.060 --> 00:31:53.680 centuriation. 00:31:53.680 --> 00:32:04.440 That is the measuring of land outside the town by a surveying 00:32:04.440 --> 00:32:11.040 technique using a gromaticus, a manual on utility 00:32:11.040 --> 00:32:17.590 needs how to lay out parcels of land. 00:32:17.590 --> 00:32:25.080 These were both used for agricultural purposes 00:32:25.080 --> 00:32:29.520 and also as payment for service. 00:32:33.830 --> 00:32:41.600 So the hermetic quality of the Greek colonial settlement 00:32:41.600 --> 00:32:45.020 is quite different in spirit. 00:32:48.790 --> 00:32:51.955 Every crossing was a town. 00:33:03.710 --> 00:33:10.400 The notion of being the center of a empire 00:33:10.400 --> 00:33:12.920 is different than the metaphysics of being 00:33:12.920 --> 00:33:17.180 the center of the Earth. 00:33:17.180 --> 00:33:19.760 The one is provable, the one is not provable. 00:33:19.760 --> 00:33:24.470 The one is metaphysical, as in the cosmic model. 00:33:24.470 --> 00:33:28.370 You'll remember my quoting Vassiliadis 00:33:28.370 --> 00:33:37.610 regarding the centeredness of the archaic world. 00:33:40.280 --> 00:33:46.260 The centeredness here is the linking. 00:33:46.260 --> 00:33:49.940 Of course, the center of Rome, with all its fora 00:33:49.940 --> 00:33:57.560 and magnificence, was the center of a fundamental system 00:33:57.560 --> 00:33:59.980 of financial distribution. 00:33:59.980 --> 00:34:03.350 The Roman Empire was built on physicality. 00:34:03.350 --> 00:34:09.199 That is, on the learning how to tax people locally, and then 00:34:09.199 --> 00:34:12.900 feed the money back into a central place. 00:34:12.900 --> 00:34:17.900 This is the first model of colonial enterprise. 00:34:17.900 --> 00:34:22.250 You find some wonderful reactions to it. 00:34:22.250 --> 00:34:27.679 Bellini's opera Norma-- has anybody seen Norma? 00:34:27.679 --> 00:34:29.810 You should see Norma. 00:34:29.810 --> 00:34:32.750 Norma is the story of the Roman occupation 00:34:32.750 --> 00:34:35.659 of the capital city of Gaul. 00:34:35.659 --> 00:34:42.000 And Norma is the local woman who leads 00:34:42.000 --> 00:34:44.330 the revolt against the Romans. 00:34:44.330 --> 00:34:48.139 She of course falls in love with a Roman lieutenant. 00:34:48.139 --> 00:34:54.980 And both of them disappear into the God only knows what. 00:34:59.060 --> 00:35:03.650 Or if you want another invocation of the Roman city, 00:35:03.650 --> 00:35:08.990 read Shakespeare's play Coriolanus. 00:35:08.990 --> 00:35:15.860 Coriolanus is a bad Roman and he suffers on his attempt 00:35:15.860 --> 00:35:20.270 to return to Rome to his mother center, 00:35:20.270 --> 00:35:25.460 but fails in his attempt. 00:35:25.460 --> 00:35:28.430 OK, there's a lot to be said about the Romans. 00:35:40.040 --> 00:35:45.710 The territory subdivided by the gromaticus is generally 6 by 6, 00:35:45.710 --> 00:35:48.050 or 36 units. 00:35:48.050 --> 00:35:50.630 And this is the circumference of land 00:35:50.630 --> 00:35:52.940 plowed by one ox in one day. 00:35:58.560 --> 00:36:02.460 I'm wanting to go through this very quickly because we 00:36:02.460 --> 00:36:05.880 have to look at some images and there's no point. 00:36:05.880 --> 00:36:10.170 I'm only trying to make a central an argument as I 00:36:10.170 --> 00:36:13.080 can about each case. 00:36:13.080 --> 00:36:14.970 One of the arguments I'm not making 00:36:14.970 --> 00:36:19.380 is the influence of materials. 00:36:19.380 --> 00:36:23.640 The Romans were the first people to invent concrete. 00:36:23.640 --> 00:36:27.420 And the public quality of the Roman city 00:36:27.420 --> 00:36:32.190 is ascribed to the availability of concrete. 00:36:32.190 --> 00:36:34.090 For those of you interested, there's 00:36:34.090 --> 00:36:39.450 is a piece by an MIT Professor, Heather Lechtman 00:36:39.450 --> 00:36:45.210 called Roman Concrete and the Roman Architecture Revolution. 00:36:45.210 --> 00:36:50.880 She argues that hydraulic setting cement 00:36:50.880 --> 00:36:54.690 was an attractive ceramic medium for a period buildings. 00:36:54.690 --> 00:36:57.870 These could be processed at ambient temperatures 00:36:57.870 --> 00:37:00.960 from readily available raw ingredients 00:37:00.960 --> 00:37:03.585 and cast into large, designated spaces. 00:37:06.420 --> 00:37:09.780 It produced integral monolithic structures, 00:37:09.780 --> 00:37:13.530 which could be incrementally extended. 00:37:13.530 --> 00:37:17.880 The Greeks had to meet in the open space. 00:37:17.880 --> 00:37:20.580 The Jews still meet in the open space 00:37:20.580 --> 00:37:24.540 up against the Western Wall against the remnants 00:37:24.540 --> 00:37:27.195 of Herod's Temple. 00:37:27.195 --> 00:37:29.460 The Romans for the first time made 00:37:29.460 --> 00:37:36.370 it possible to enclose space and convert the spaces 00:37:36.370 --> 00:37:40.410 is no larger than about six feet enormities corridor 00:37:40.410 --> 00:37:45.120 is a very concrete phenomenon. 00:37:45.120 --> 00:37:48.870 The Pantheon is an example. 00:37:48.870 --> 00:37:51.660 But Lechtman doesn't only refer to the Pantheon. 00:37:51.660 --> 00:37:55.500 She refers to the aqueducts, to the whole system 00:37:55.500 --> 00:37:59.160 of building public buildings at the scale that they did. 00:37:59.160 --> 00:38:01.365 The Greeks weren't great builders. 00:38:01.365 --> 00:38:02.675 They were aesthetes. 00:38:07.440 --> 00:38:12.440 There's a thesis last year by Daniele Cappelletti who argues 00:38:12.440 --> 00:38:16.340 that the Romans enabled the beginning of what he called 00:38:16.340 --> 00:38:18.410 [INAUDIBLE] architecture-- 00:38:18.410 --> 00:38:20.720 that is, the interior of buildings. 00:38:20.720 --> 00:38:23.360 The Greeks weren't interested in interiors-- 00:38:23.360 --> 00:38:27.986 they were exterior, externalizers. 00:38:27.986 --> 00:38:31.750 A plan of the agora doesn't follow any access. 00:38:31.750 --> 00:38:37.010 It's a jumble of things, much like the Mayan town. 00:38:37.010 --> 00:38:41.330 If you devote yourself to creating buildings which only 00:38:41.330 --> 00:38:44.780 makes sense given the exterior, what they can see 00:38:44.780 --> 00:38:54.080 or how they can be seen, you can deviate from the model 00:38:54.080 --> 00:38:55.595 that the Romans used. 00:38:58.910 --> 00:39:02.630 The post-Roman period, we call the Middle Ages. 00:39:06.110 --> 00:39:09.620 In my learning of history, these were the Dark Ages. 00:39:09.620 --> 00:39:12.050 Nothing happened-- the world only 00:39:12.050 --> 00:39:19.070 emerged after a period of immense turmoil in Europe. 00:39:21.620 --> 00:39:28.070 There's been recent history done on this period from 300 to 900 00:39:28.070 --> 00:39:35.495 AD, from 400 to 880 AD, to mention two new books. 00:39:39.980 --> 00:39:44.170 There's not too much to be said. 00:39:44.170 --> 00:39:51.600 The Roman system was localized in every respect. 00:39:51.600 --> 00:39:55.230 Large families and the church took over sites 00:39:55.230 --> 00:39:59.940 from Roman camps. 00:39:59.940 --> 00:40:06.720 The fiscal system-- there wasn't a centralized economy funding 00:40:06.720 --> 00:40:11.400 taxation into Rome, so each set up 00:40:11.400 --> 00:40:14.130 a competitive system for towns. 00:40:16.710 --> 00:40:19.620 One of the things that the Roman roads did 00:40:19.620 --> 00:40:26.710 was to allow the subsequent cultures to use the system 00:40:26.710 --> 00:40:31.650 of moving large distances. 00:40:31.650 --> 00:40:35.760 The Christian Church took advantage of this. 00:40:35.760 --> 00:40:46.260 In the story of [INAUDIBLE] what's the town in the-- 00:40:52.740 --> 00:40:55.230 my mind has slipped-- 00:40:55.230 --> 00:40:57.720 the town I wrote about in the first reading? 00:41:02.210 --> 00:41:06.200 It's [INAUDIBLE] one of the saintly cities in Northern 00:41:06.200 --> 00:41:09.867 Spain, [INAUDIBLE] named-- 00:41:09.867 --> 00:41:10.700 AUDIENCE: Compostela 00:41:10.700 --> 00:41:12.080 JULIAN BEINART: Compostela. 00:41:12.080 --> 00:41:13.970 Of course, it's named after James. 00:41:13.970 --> 00:41:19.220 It's got the same name as San Diego and all of the-- sorry, 00:41:19.220 --> 00:41:22.460 I try to remember too much. 00:41:26.450 --> 00:41:31.490 Pilgrimage was made possible by virtue of the Roman roads, 00:41:31.490 --> 00:41:36.920 so was in medieval connections in commerce. 00:41:36.920 --> 00:41:44.210 A pilgrim could come to Compostela from Bulgaria, 00:41:44.210 --> 00:41:51.320 walk or take a donkey, move through France 00:41:51.320 --> 00:41:54.650 where they would stay in religious hostels, 00:41:54.650 --> 00:41:58.040 eat Coquilles Saint-Jacques, which 00:41:58.040 --> 00:42:04.760 is the food which emanates from Compostela, because Compostela 00:42:04.760 --> 00:42:12.050 is a signature in the scallop, much like shell petroleum. 00:42:12.050 --> 00:42:17.135 It adopted the scallop as its important logo. 00:42:20.210 --> 00:42:26.360 I think the first post-medieval notion 00:42:26.360 --> 00:42:31.580 of the machine-like phenomenon occurs 00:42:31.580 --> 00:42:36.890 with the expansion in the 13th century 00:42:36.890 --> 00:42:40.640 of the French Bastide towns. 00:42:40.640 --> 00:42:53.510 Bastides is B-A-S-T-I-D-E-S. In the 13th century, 00:42:53.510 --> 00:43:01.210 the Central Royal Authority built something like 177 new 00:43:01.210 --> 00:43:07.430 towns in the French territory in the south. 00:43:07.430 --> 00:43:14.950 Between 1241 and 1330, you have towns 00:43:14.950 --> 00:43:20.560 like Carcassonne, Beauvais, Montpensier, [INAUDIBLE].. 00:43:20.560 --> 00:43:26.920 These settlers who were asked to come and populate these towns 00:43:26.920 --> 00:43:31.980 were there because of the French authority's wish 00:43:31.980 --> 00:43:35.620 to propose to defend, imposed their will 00:43:35.620 --> 00:43:38.680 on the distant parts of the empire. 00:43:38.680 --> 00:43:41.390 They also developed as markets centers. 00:43:43.990 --> 00:43:46.270 A grid of convenience, the quickest 00:43:46.270 --> 00:43:52.150 and most equitable way of laying out a town on a new site. 00:43:52.150 --> 00:43:55.780 The form of these towns is also grid-like. 00:43:55.780 --> 00:43:59.800 The plan differs in some fundamental respects. 00:43:59.800 --> 00:44:03.940 The plan is a formal order which is generally orthogonal. 00:44:03.940 --> 00:44:08.920 But the plan, it doesn't follow the Roman preoccupation 00:44:08.920 --> 00:44:10.750 with a single axis. 00:44:10.750 --> 00:44:12.545 It pairs roads. 00:44:29.220 --> 00:44:32.160 This is the central square. 00:44:32.160 --> 00:44:41.130 And where the road passes through the central square, 00:44:41.130 --> 00:44:42.315 it is arcaded. 00:44:52.730 --> 00:44:57.820 The church is generally located on a side site. 00:44:57.820 --> 00:45:07.720 These sites was subdivided in grid fashion. 00:45:07.720 --> 00:45:13.870 There's a gate here, a gate here, there's a gate here, 00:45:13.870 --> 00:45:15.190 and there's a gate here. 00:45:18.557 --> 00:45:23.660 And the same impulse to make it attractive for people 00:45:23.660 --> 00:45:30.830 to migrate, to pay them for the effort of migration, the state 00:45:30.830 --> 00:45:36.110 takes on the role of building the walls, and so on. 00:45:39.440 --> 00:45:42.290 Has any of you been to a town like this? 00:45:45.580 --> 00:45:49.060 Which town do you remember? 00:45:49.060 --> 00:45:51.815 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] 00:45:51.815 --> 00:45:53.400 JULIAN BEINART: Well, Montpensier 00:45:53.400 --> 00:45:54.960 is probably the best known. 00:45:54.960 --> 00:45:58.695 It has the most developed system of arcades. 00:46:01.350 --> 00:46:10.080 If you have any chance to visit Montpensier, do so. 00:46:10.080 --> 00:46:11.250 The wine is good. 00:46:19.520 --> 00:46:21.600 The arcades are called cornier. 00:46:25.100 --> 00:46:26.930 And the subdivision of the land is 00:46:26.930 --> 00:46:31.220 called in French it's referred to as checkers. 00:46:31.220 --> 00:46:38.600 And popular game checkers has similar notation, 00:46:38.600 --> 00:46:42.830 formal notation, as the layout of the town. 00:46:42.830 --> 00:46:45.050 By the way, Winston Churchill's house 00:46:45.050 --> 00:46:47.180 was named Checkers as well. 00:46:47.180 --> 00:46:50.195 Haven't the faintest idea why, but it's amusing. 00:46:54.010 --> 00:47:02.380 The largest decentralization after the Roman 00:47:02.380 --> 00:47:07.630 occurs in the Spanish occupation of Latin America 00:47:07.630 --> 00:47:09.540 and the southern part of the United States. 00:47:45.730 --> 00:47:48.340 This is about a crude a generalization as one 00:47:48.340 --> 00:47:52.840 could make, but I'll try. 00:47:52.840 --> 00:47:55.930 In 1494, the Meridian of Tordesillas 00:47:55.930 --> 00:48:04.110 is divided Latin America into Portuguese domain 00:48:04.110 --> 00:48:05.220 and the Spanish domain. 00:48:10.450 --> 00:48:17.110 The Laws of the Indies applies to this domain here 00:48:17.110 --> 00:48:20.800 and also to this domain here, which was part 00:48:20.800 --> 00:48:23.410 of South America at the time. 00:48:26.110 --> 00:48:30.760 We'll talk about the grid of expediency here 00:48:30.760 --> 00:48:33.070 and the cattaneo model here. 00:48:36.310 --> 00:48:45.970 C-A-T-T-A-N-E-O-- New Haven, Savannah, Charleston. 00:48:49.870 --> 00:48:52.180 Let's makes generalizations about them. 00:48:57.140 --> 00:49:07.060 In 1573, Philip II, understanding 00:49:07.060 --> 00:49:13.840 the military, religious, and financial availability of land 00:49:13.840 --> 00:49:18.790 in the hinterland of the Americas, 00:49:18.790 --> 00:49:23.740 created an argument or set of principles on which towns 00:49:23.740 --> 00:49:25.210 would be laid out. 00:49:25.210 --> 00:49:29.005 These are called in English the Laws of the Indies. 00:49:32.220 --> 00:49:47.650 They describe the way you are set of rules which specify-- 00:49:51.480 --> 00:50:00.145 I'd better hurry-- the size of the individual components 00:50:00.145 --> 00:50:00.645 of the town. 00:50:03.750 --> 00:50:05.460 The main plaza was to be oriented 00:50:05.460 --> 00:50:08.040 so its four corners pointed to the four 00:50:08.040 --> 00:50:10.245 cardinal points of a compass. 00:50:10.245 --> 00:50:14.490 It shall not be smaller than 200 feet wide 00:50:14.490 --> 00:50:19.680 and 300 feet long, no larger than 800 feet long, and so on. 00:50:23.730 --> 00:50:27.900 It had a formal message to convey 00:50:27.900 --> 00:50:32.850 to the Indians who located around where the new settlement 00:50:32.850 --> 00:50:35.910 tool place. 00:50:35.910 --> 00:50:39.060 "When the Indians see them, they will be filled with wonder." 00:50:39.060 --> 00:50:42.510 That is the church. 00:50:42.510 --> 00:50:46.620 The Indians should not be let into this town 00:50:46.620 --> 00:50:49.230 until the church is finished. 00:50:49.230 --> 00:50:53.820 The church architecture represents the formal attribute 00:50:53.820 --> 00:50:56.000 of colonial superiority. 00:50:58.580 --> 00:51:01.430 The Indians must understand that they have been conquered 00:51:01.430 --> 00:51:05.750 by a superior race, therefore the church, 00:51:05.750 --> 00:51:10.040 which is to the Spanish the highest 00:51:10.040 --> 00:51:15.950 form of contact with God and the only formal attribute 00:51:15.950 --> 00:51:20.510 that we have other than behavior and ritual, 00:51:20.510 --> 00:51:26.670 becomes the temple of the Roman town, at least 00:51:26.670 --> 00:51:28.175 to the Laws of the Indies town. 00:51:38.180 --> 00:51:44.180 St. Augustine, Florida was the first application 00:51:44.180 --> 00:51:48.540 of the Laws of the Indies in 1565. 00:51:48.540 --> 00:51:55.550 Los Angeles was the last of the Spanish settlements, 1781. 00:51:55.550 --> 00:52:00.770 So the period of this 1565 to 1781 00:52:00.770 --> 00:52:07.040 takes care of many of the towns, St. Augustine. 00:52:07.040 --> 00:52:11.240 The Anglo-American grid, which is the grid of experience 00:52:11.240 --> 00:52:18.140 to the North, overlaps with the Laws of the Indies grid 00:52:18.140 --> 00:52:20.570 in towns like Albuquerque. 00:52:20.570 --> 00:52:26.810 If you want to look further into how this structure works 00:52:26.810 --> 00:52:31.025 when the two collide, I'll give you the reference. 00:52:31.025 --> 00:52:33.530 It's a piece written by an ex-student 00:52:33.530 --> 00:52:38.540 from this class published a number of years ago. 00:52:42.420 --> 00:52:46.130 The Portuguese Empire was left to develop 00:52:46.130 --> 00:52:49.800 according to a pattern different from the Spanish towns. 00:52:49.800 --> 00:52:53.550 The Portuguese Empire was casual. 00:52:53.550 --> 00:52:58.200 It really spent most of its presence 00:52:58.200 --> 00:53:02.040 in the Iberian Peninsula looking outwards and being 00:53:02.040 --> 00:53:10.440 dramatic, reoriented, and conquering the sea routes. 00:53:10.440 --> 00:53:13.860 Sao Paulo, which is now one of the world's largest cities, 00:53:13.860 --> 00:53:17.040 one of the few 20 million-person cities, 00:53:17.040 --> 00:53:20.010 has its origin in nothing more than three 00:53:20.010 --> 00:53:25.860 different religious sects forming the town on a hill 00:53:25.860 --> 00:53:27.780 away from the water. 00:53:27.780 --> 00:53:30.910 Sao Paulo should have been on the water. 00:53:30.910 --> 00:53:36.000 These people made a mistake, and in competition 00:53:36.000 --> 00:53:41.940 with each other set up three points of growth 00:53:41.940 --> 00:53:45.390 in central Sao Paulo. 00:53:45.390 --> 00:53:47.355 AUDIENCE: How do the Law of Indies 00:53:47.355 --> 00:53:49.835 apply to a city like Mexico City, 00:53:49.835 --> 00:53:53.321 because it was actually kind of established. 00:53:53.321 --> 00:53:54.480 JULIAN BEINART: It adapted. 00:53:57.570 --> 00:54:01.470 Most of these generalizations and rules 00:54:01.470 --> 00:54:12.480 are systems of order which have to compete with the existing 00:54:12.480 --> 00:54:13.680 structure. 00:54:13.680 --> 00:54:16.500 The Greek town, had it been in the desert, 00:54:16.500 --> 00:54:19.600 would have been paid less attention to it. 00:54:19.600 --> 00:54:23.190 The Egyptian town, being on the flat land, 00:54:23.190 --> 00:54:24.840 didn't deal with topography. 00:54:28.050 --> 00:54:30.340 The story of Mexico is a long story, 00:54:30.340 --> 00:54:32.406 and I haven't got time unfortunately to-- 00:54:35.100 --> 00:54:37.290 maybe I can send you an email about it. 00:54:37.290 --> 00:54:39.900 But the story of Mexico City. 00:54:39.900 --> 00:54:40.857 Where are you from. 00:54:40.857 --> 00:54:41.940 AUDIENCE: I'm from Mexico. 00:54:41.940 --> 00:54:42.857 JULIAN BEINART: Where? 00:54:42.857 --> 00:54:44.760 AUDIENCE: So I know the story of Mexico. 00:54:44.760 --> 00:54:48.240 What I'm trying to understand is how 00:54:48.240 --> 00:54:53.650 it deviated from one standardized town 00:54:53.650 --> 00:54:55.190 the photos and another. 00:55:00.782 --> 00:55:06.110 JULIAN BEINART: It followed it as best it could. 00:55:06.110 --> 00:55:08.990 One needs to look at Bogota or Quito 00:55:08.990 --> 00:55:10.880 to find much more pure example-- 00:55:10.880 --> 00:55:14.330 I'm sure both Bogota and Quito are much purer 00:55:14.330 --> 00:55:18.140 examples of building new towns on the basis 00:55:18.140 --> 00:55:19.790 of little competition. 00:55:19.790 --> 00:55:21.960 Mexico City was unusual. 00:55:21.960 --> 00:55:24.635 Most of the Laws of the Indies towns were new towns. 00:55:28.990 --> 00:55:34.280 OK, let's jump. 00:55:47.450 --> 00:56:03.600 The amount of time left for discussing 00:56:03.600 --> 00:56:08.730 the influences on the laying out of most of Central-- 00:56:08.730 --> 00:56:12.510 not Central America, Central and North America-- 00:56:12.510 --> 00:56:16.860 can be found in books by John Rep's Town Planning 00:56:16.860 --> 00:56:21.030 in Frontier America, a number of texts. 00:56:21.030 --> 00:56:26.790 One of the best that I would refer to is Conzen's writing. 00:56:26.790 --> 00:56:28.860 The reference isn't in this class, 00:56:28.860 --> 00:56:31.590 it's for class number 24. 00:56:31.590 --> 00:56:36.300 Conzen, a British geographer, has 00:56:36.300 --> 00:56:39.610 written very excellent stuff. 00:56:39.610 --> 00:56:45.250 Essentially the components of the grid of expediency 00:56:45.250 --> 00:56:46.650 are the following-- 00:56:46.650 --> 00:56:50.250 number 1, the Land Ordinance of 1785 00:56:50.250 --> 00:56:55.320 which divided the unbuilt parts of the United States, 00:56:55.320 --> 00:56:58.570 first only part of it, then finally 00:56:58.570 --> 00:57:04.410 most of the United States, into a grid of 6 by 6 miles. 00:57:04.410 --> 00:57:08.070 Local authorities or local towns could then 00:57:08.070 --> 00:57:10.890 subdivide within this grid. 00:57:10.890 --> 00:57:17.400 Most of the subdivision was taken care of by two forces, 00:57:17.400 --> 00:57:21.630 either private development, which subdivided length 00:57:21.630 --> 00:57:30.600 into smaller units, or the railroad companies which 00:57:30.600 --> 00:57:34.260 merged [INAUDIBLE] develop [INAUDIBLE] profits 00:57:34.260 --> 00:57:36.420 hand-in-hand. 00:57:36.420 --> 00:57:40.050 The standard plan used by railroads for 33 towns 00:57:40.050 --> 00:57:44.400 developed by one group alone in Illinois. 00:57:44.400 --> 00:57:46.440 There was another force at work, and that 00:57:46.440 --> 00:57:51.240 was the movement of religious groups such as the Mormons 00:57:51.240 --> 00:57:53.190 across this country. 00:57:53.190 --> 00:57:57.930 There were Mormons starting in 1913 up in New York. 00:57:57.930 --> 00:58:02.690 They moved to a Kirkland, Ohio, they were pushed out of there. 00:58:02.690 --> 00:58:05.970 They move to Missouri, the revelation 00:58:05.970 --> 00:58:08.430 that this is the new place. 00:58:08.430 --> 00:58:10.350 They moved out of there. 00:58:10.350 --> 00:58:15.900 They went to Nauvoo in Illinois and spent the winter quarters 00:58:15.900 --> 00:58:18.630 in 1847 in Nebraska. 00:58:18.630 --> 00:58:24.450 And finally in 1847, after a journey of 17 years, 00:58:24.450 --> 00:58:27.900 Brigham Young said, this is the place 00:58:27.900 --> 00:58:31.350 and he developed Salt Lake City. 00:58:31.350 --> 00:58:37.500 Salt Lake City is a grid city, which has a set of micro-rules 00:58:37.500 --> 00:58:38.880 about street-- 00:58:38.880 --> 00:58:42.660 which lots can be facing the streets, and so on. 00:58:42.660 --> 00:58:46.215 I'll talk about that later. 00:58:51.280 --> 00:58:59.440 Two people who've argued about the grid of expediency-- 00:58:59.440 --> 00:59:02.650 Lewis Mumford has called urban land 00:59:02.650 --> 00:59:07.180 becoming a mere commodity by the parceling of land 00:59:07.180 --> 00:59:11.090 a quick conversion of farmstead into real estate 00:59:11.090 --> 00:59:14.050 and a quick sale. 00:59:14.050 --> 00:59:18.920 Richard Sennett has written in the Conscience of the Eye 00:59:18.920 --> 00:59:22.570 about the Protestant ethic of being 00:59:22.570 --> 00:59:28.690 satisfied with what he calls the Protestant ethic of space. 00:59:28.690 --> 00:59:31.690 "Here is where the good found its place. 00:59:31.690 --> 00:59:34.570 It was a space for economic competition 00:59:34.570 --> 00:59:36.910 to be played upon like a chessboard. 00:59:36.910 --> 00:59:40.540 It was a space of neutrality, and neutrality achieved 00:59:40.540 --> 00:59:45.780 by denying to the environment any value of its own." 00:59:45.780 --> 00:59:52.210 This attempt to argue in this way 00:59:52.210 --> 00:59:58.030 argues that, if I buy any IBM share, 00:59:58.030 --> 01:00:00.160 I buy a piece of its typewriters-- 01:00:00.160 --> 01:00:02.590 I don't know if they still makes them-- 01:00:02.590 --> 01:00:06.820 a piece of real estate, a piece of its land. 01:00:06.820 --> 01:00:13.210 My $5 share, or $47 share, is a commodity 01:00:13.210 --> 01:00:17.080 as a reduction of a large complex whole. 01:00:17.080 --> 01:00:20.620 The argument is that the city is a complex whole. 01:00:20.620 --> 01:00:24.790 And reducing it to a commodity by gridding it 01:00:24.790 --> 01:00:29.870 takes no account of the essential qualities of a city. 01:00:29.870 --> 01:00:35.410 There's a kind of cosmic memory associated with his critique. 01:00:38.170 --> 01:00:42.370 How capitalism developed Boston with no grid 01:00:42.370 --> 01:00:45.060 is, of course, a question I would ask Richard Sennett 01:00:45.060 --> 01:00:46.120 or Lewis Mumford. 01:00:48.870 --> 01:00:52.200 Not all American cities were like Chicago. 01:00:58.140 --> 01:01:03.660 The cattaneo of cities on the East Coast, 01:01:03.660 --> 01:01:05.520 I have got time to-- 01:01:05.520 --> 01:01:07.710 but they essentially are best described 01:01:07.710 --> 01:01:13.050 by the Plan of Savannah, written very elegantly in an analysis 01:01:13.050 --> 01:01:16.590 by Stanford Anderson, who's a Professor in the Department 01:01:16.590 --> 01:01:18.030 of Architecture. 01:01:18.030 --> 01:01:21.060 It essentially takes the grid plan 01:01:21.060 --> 01:01:26.220 and centers it into neighborhoods 01:01:26.220 --> 01:01:28.350 with parks in the center. 01:01:28.350 --> 01:01:32.460 It divides the road system into wider roads 01:01:32.460 --> 01:01:34.500 which run north-south. 01:01:34.500 --> 01:01:39.180 Why do the roads in Manhattan are wider, 100 feet wide, 01:01:39.180 --> 01:01:43.170 going north-south, and 50 feet wide going east-west? 01:01:47.510 --> 01:01:50.540 What are the roads connecting in the Rome sense? 01:01:53.720 --> 01:02:00.180 Docks, water traffic on either side of the island. 01:02:00.180 --> 01:02:03.200 So the east-west street should have been wider 01:02:03.200 --> 01:02:05.590 than the north-south street. 01:02:05.590 --> 01:02:09.225 The north-south are avenues. 01:02:09.225 --> 01:02:09.725 Why? 01:02:12.290 --> 01:02:14.540 Let's try to answer that question 01:02:14.540 --> 01:02:19.640 in talking about the 1811 Plan. 01:02:19.640 --> 01:02:24.590 The 1811 Plan was no cosmic plan. 01:02:24.590 --> 01:02:27.260 According to Roy Strickland's writing, 01:02:27.260 --> 01:02:29.720 it simply adapted the measurements 01:02:29.720 --> 01:02:34.310 of the British settlement, which took 01:02:34.310 --> 01:02:42.630 over the Dutch original 1623 settlement. 01:02:42.630 --> 01:02:46.590 There was a wonderful exhibition of the 1811 Plan in New York 01:02:46.590 --> 01:02:47.770 last year. 01:02:47.770 --> 01:02:49.950 I don't know if any of you saw it. 01:02:49.950 --> 01:02:52.200 Did you see it? 01:02:52.200 --> 01:02:54.260 Pretty. 01:02:54.260 --> 01:02:58.430 It says more than I can possibly say. 01:02:58.430 --> 01:03:04.280 In the commissioner's report, it says, 01:03:04.280 --> 01:03:06.665 "we could not bear in mind that a city is 01:03:06.665 --> 01:03:10.370 to compose principally of the habitations of men, 01:03:10.370 --> 01:03:13.610 and that straight-sided and right-angled houses 01:03:13.610 --> 01:03:18.960 are the most cheap to build and the most convenient to live in, 01:03:18.960 --> 01:03:23.480 effective these plain and simple reflections are decisive." 01:03:26.700 --> 01:03:36.400 So here we have a plan which many people have commented on, 01:03:36.400 --> 01:03:42.766 a plan which is allowed enormous subdivisional specialization, 01:03:42.766 --> 01:03:46.720 a plan which has allowed the southern sector to grow 01:03:46.720 --> 01:03:48.730 as a financial center. 01:03:48.730 --> 01:03:55.910 A central part is a part for department stores, 01:03:55.910 --> 01:03:59.710 the combination of housing and offices 01:03:59.710 --> 01:04:05.275 and commerce in the rest of the plan. 01:04:08.350 --> 01:04:13.450 Essentially, it's a plan which [INAUDIBLE] has correctly 01:04:13.450 --> 01:04:18.370 written about as delirious. 01:04:18.370 --> 01:04:23.920 One of the advantages of a free system. 01:04:23.920 --> 01:04:28.030 There have been rules about building a Manhattan ever 01:04:28.030 --> 01:04:31.771 since, the protection of the sidewalks-- 01:04:31.771 --> 01:04:33.700 the height at which buildings get 01:04:33.700 --> 01:04:36.430 build, and so on, over time. 01:04:36.430 --> 01:04:40.180 But the central grid has remained. 01:04:40.180 --> 01:04:44.290 It is fundamental to the grid system of New York 01:04:44.290 --> 01:04:47.335 that Central Park connects east and west. 01:04:50.420 --> 01:04:53.990 The grid system is the fundamental flexibility 01:04:53.990 --> 01:04:57.150 phenomenon of Manhattan. 01:04:57.150 --> 01:05:00.530 And it coupled with the combination 01:05:00.530 --> 01:05:08.280 of income and density produces a unique situation 01:05:08.280 --> 01:05:13.710 which we will examine more carefully later in this class. 01:05:13.710 --> 01:05:17.340 But could Manhattan be developed on a different principle 01:05:17.340 --> 01:05:18.150 than a grid? 01:05:21.350 --> 01:05:23.600 That's asking a big question. 01:05:23.600 --> 01:05:26.490 We'd have to do different plans for that 01:05:26.490 --> 01:05:31.130 and try to assemble the conjecture that follows. 01:05:31.130 --> 01:05:34.940 We're not doing it, and it's ridiculous to do it. 01:05:34.940 --> 01:05:37.010 The lessons from Manhattan are to be 01:05:37.010 --> 01:05:41.870 learned by virtue of reading the original plan 01:05:41.870 --> 01:05:45.050 and studying the attempts to modify it. 01:05:47.750 --> 01:05:52.850 It like many-- how are we doing? 01:05:52.850 --> 01:05:58.700 Two minutes-- like many city plans, 01:05:58.700 --> 01:06:01.130 is in a constant state of adaptation. 01:06:05.270 --> 01:06:08.800 The Second Avenue Subway is the last 01:06:08.800 --> 01:06:13.160 of the most recent of the distortions of-- 01:06:13.160 --> 01:06:16.580 not the distortions, that adaptations 01:06:16.580 --> 01:06:20.210 to the plan, the attempt to-- 01:06:22.850 --> 01:06:27.710 Rowe Price Manhattan failed, it's probably 01:06:27.710 --> 01:06:31.660 likely to occur at sometime. 01:06:31.660 --> 01:06:37.490 The impossibility of connecting the hinterland to the center 01:06:37.490 --> 01:06:41.600 is evidenced by the fact that New York, one 01:06:41.600 --> 01:06:44.660 of the primary commercial cities of the world, 01:06:44.660 --> 01:06:51.770 has the worst international airport system of any city 01:06:51.770 --> 01:06:53.870 competitively. 01:06:53.870 --> 01:06:56.360 It's only the arrogance of New York 01:06:56.360 --> 01:07:00.090 that let's it get away with having a second rate airport 01:07:00.090 --> 01:07:00.590 system. 01:07:04.874 --> 01:07:10.670 Those of who have experienced LaGuardia and Kennedy and New 01:07:10.670 --> 01:07:15.590 Jersey and have been to great, new airports 01:07:15.590 --> 01:07:19.130 can argue for yourselves the distinction. 01:07:22.850 --> 01:07:26.600 Carnegie Hall is one of the most uncomfortable places 01:07:26.600 --> 01:07:28.820 to listen to great music. 01:07:28.820 --> 01:07:32.570 Again, New York gets away through a kind 01:07:32.570 --> 01:07:34.890 of economic arrogance. 01:07:34.890 --> 01:07:39.230 The theory, which is highly personal to me, that is, 01:07:39.230 --> 01:07:42.830 if you develop enough economic strength, 01:07:42.830 --> 01:07:49.040 you need not follow it by making everything of the highest 01:07:49.040 --> 01:07:51.520 order. 01:07:51.520 --> 01:07:54.670 It's a stupid phenomenon, but maybe it's true. 01:07:54.670 --> 01:07:58.600 It's only in China, which has new wealth, that people 01:07:58.600 --> 01:08:02.570 can build new airports. 01:08:02.570 --> 01:08:05.280 It's of course not totally true. 01:08:05.280 --> 01:08:13.700 But one of the major concerns about the additive quality 01:08:13.700 --> 01:08:20.210 of the Chinese city is that it is a city of addition 01:08:20.210 --> 01:08:25.550 and has lost any of the attributes of the cosmos 01:08:25.550 --> 01:08:30.529 or even the Roman camp. 01:08:30.529 --> 01:08:32.960 We will go into that some more. 01:08:32.960 --> 01:08:35.240 The last group of slides will deal 01:08:35.240 --> 01:08:41.840 with the evocation of linearity and more modern concepts 01:08:41.840 --> 01:08:45.350 of the use of the idea of the machine. 01:08:45.350 --> 01:08:48.649 So why don't we look at them, otherwise we will just go on. 01:08:48.649 --> 01:08:50.000 This is a long class. 01:08:50.000 --> 01:08:51.980 This is an enormous amount of stuff. 01:08:57.640 --> 01:09:01.689 I don't apologize for these first three classes. 01:09:01.689 --> 01:09:05.229 Most you haven't done enough urban history. 01:09:05.229 --> 01:09:06.670 Here are two examples. 01:09:06.670 --> 01:09:09.720 The one on the right is from Tell el-Armana. 01:09:09.720 --> 01:09:21.100 The one on the left is from Kahun 2460 BC and 320 BC. 01:09:21.100 --> 01:09:21.600 Next. 01:09:25.649 --> 01:09:28.080 This is the town of Tell el-Amarna 01:09:28.080 --> 01:09:32.500 on the east side of the Nile built by the Pharaoh Akhenaten 01:09:32.500 --> 01:09:36.090 and occupied for only 40 years. 01:09:36.090 --> 01:09:39.930 He had a religious argument with the priest in Thebes 01:09:39.930 --> 01:09:43.350 and went across the Nile to build his new town. 01:09:43.350 --> 01:09:51.479 The yellow in the plan refers to the workers lair. 01:09:51.479 --> 01:09:55.140 There's another story, which I haven't got time 01:09:55.140 --> 01:09:58.590 much to go into that. 01:09:58.590 --> 01:10:03.240 In Freud's writing about Moses, the book 01:10:03.240 --> 01:10:06.220 is called Moses and Monotheism, he 01:10:06.220 --> 01:10:11.580 talks about the connection between pharaonic Egypt 01:10:11.580 --> 01:10:16.560 and the emergence of Palestine, the sum notion 01:10:16.560 --> 01:10:21.550 that this land for Jerusalem is taken from the Dead Sea 01:10:21.550 --> 01:10:22.050 Scrolls. 01:10:25.290 --> 01:10:31.230 The sum notion that there was some connection passing 01:10:31.230 --> 01:10:34.260 on information from the Jevasites, 01:10:34.260 --> 01:10:38.490 the first occupiers of Jerusalem, or one of the first, 01:10:38.490 --> 01:10:40.410 and the Egyptians. 01:10:40.410 --> 01:10:40.910 Next. 01:10:43.920 --> 01:10:47.220 The Greek town, Miletus-- 01:10:47.220 --> 01:10:49.600 Miletus, you can see the structure 01:10:49.600 --> 01:10:50.850 of the containing wall. 01:10:54.080 --> 01:10:58.340 The orange and darker colors of the imposition of the Romans 01:10:58.340 --> 01:11:00.440 on top of the Greek plan. 01:11:00.440 --> 01:11:02.750 Next. 01:11:02.750 --> 01:11:13.060 OK, Priene, the main axes roads-- 01:11:13.060 --> 01:11:17.500 again north-south with minor roads east-west, 01:11:17.500 --> 01:11:23.350 and the central agora complex and temple complex 01:11:23.350 --> 01:11:28.230 and part of the central parts of the town. 01:11:28.230 --> 01:11:34.110 The Roman road system, an extraordinary phenomenon. 01:11:34.110 --> 01:11:39.360 Just imagine at the birth of Christ 01:11:39.360 --> 01:11:42.850 or a couple of hundred years afterwards 01:11:42.850 --> 01:11:47.820 that there'd be an empire built as significantly 01:11:47.820 --> 01:11:48.840 connected as this. 01:11:48.840 --> 01:11:54.000 This gives some indication of the location of the Roman 01:11:54.000 --> 01:11:54.900 towns-- 01:11:54.900 --> 01:11:59.215 5,627 according to one authority. 01:11:59.215 --> 01:11:59.715 Next. 01:12:03.690 --> 01:12:07.710 castrametation, the idea of the town 01:12:07.710 --> 01:12:11.550 as being cemented by two connecting roads, 01:12:11.550 --> 01:12:17.220 a fortification around the outskirts, 01:12:17.220 --> 01:12:22.140 and the notion of a gridded system outside. 01:12:22.140 --> 01:12:25.680 It takes an enormous amount of thought 01:12:25.680 --> 01:12:30.060 to imagine a town which has a fortification having 01:12:30.060 --> 01:12:33.720 a counterpart formal order outside the town. 01:12:33.720 --> 01:12:35.520 That is unique to the Romans. 01:12:35.520 --> 01:12:41.040 They were so conscious of the clarity of the empire 01:12:41.040 --> 01:12:47.880 that they could imagine making the land-- 01:12:47.880 --> 01:12:53.670 again, the land as opposed to the city in marks, the land 01:12:53.670 --> 01:12:55.980 as a friend of the city. 01:12:55.980 --> 01:12:58.668 Next. 01:12:58.668 --> 01:13:03.920 Here is the 6 by 6 system of land subdivision 01:13:03.920 --> 01:13:10.520 for an ox which can perambulate in one day 01:13:10.520 --> 01:13:18.010 the layout made by a [INAUDIBLE] at the hands of a gromaticus. 01:13:18.010 --> 01:13:22.210 Here near [INAUDIBLE] in Central Italy, 01:13:22.210 --> 01:13:27.620 you can see some of the effects even today of the length 01:13:27.620 --> 01:13:31.890 of the centuriation pattern. 01:13:31.890 --> 01:13:36.570 The city is only in existence in its relationship 01:13:36.570 --> 01:13:43.110 to this space outside it as it is condensed in its interior. 01:13:43.110 --> 01:13:44.470 It's a phenomenal idea. 01:13:46.990 --> 01:13:50.070 It's an idea which American cities have not, 01:13:50.070 --> 01:13:54.370 or modern cities, have not understood completely. 01:13:54.370 --> 01:13:54.870 Next. 01:13:57.740 --> 01:14:03.920 Timgad, the great Roman city for veterans on North Africa. 01:14:03.920 --> 01:14:07.220 The Cardo and Decumanus here are shortened 01:14:07.220 --> 01:14:11.280 because of the location of the forum and the amphitheater. 01:14:11.280 --> 01:14:11.780 Next. 01:14:14.860 --> 01:14:20.800 Two plans-- Verona on the right and the first attempt 01:14:20.800 --> 01:14:29.830 in a relatively Renaissance plan of Florence based on attempts 01:14:29.830 --> 01:14:33.040 to introduce a local taxation system 01:14:33.040 --> 01:14:36.305 and still respecting the Roman grid. 01:14:36.305 --> 01:14:36.805 Next. 01:14:39.920 --> 01:14:42.500 The southwest of France-- 01:14:42.500 --> 01:14:45.390 the Bastide town, a pair of towns. 01:14:45.390 --> 01:14:48.540 The cornier in the center, the church on the side. 01:14:48.540 --> 01:14:49.040 Next. 01:14:51.896 --> 01:14:56.230 [SPEAKING FRENCH] Here you see something interesting 01:14:56.230 --> 01:14:57.700 geometrically. 01:14:57.700 --> 01:15:02.010 The blocks as they go further from the center 01:15:02.010 --> 01:15:05.140 have the horizontal length based on the diagonal 01:15:05.140 --> 01:15:07.120 of the previous. 01:15:07.120 --> 01:15:11.335 So the blocks get bigger as you go out. 01:15:11.335 --> 01:15:13.992 It's a geometric trick. 01:15:13.992 --> 01:15:16.730 Here it is. 01:15:16.730 --> 01:15:19.430 Next. 01:15:19.430 --> 01:15:26.120 [INAUDIBLE] the great town on the Mediterranean, 01:15:26.120 --> 01:15:27.980 clearly in prismatic. 01:15:27.980 --> 01:15:30.290 This served is one of the launching 01:15:30.290 --> 01:15:37.370 points for many crusades to Christianize Jerusalem. 01:15:37.370 --> 01:15:41.450 And here's [INAUDIBLE] one of the roads running 01:15:41.450 --> 01:15:44.660 through the central plaza, a cornier 01:15:44.660 --> 01:15:49.190 system of creating a greater pedestrian 01:15:49.190 --> 01:15:51.830 opportunity in the center. 01:15:51.830 --> 01:15:56.325 It's like building a permanent arcade around the center. 01:15:56.325 --> 01:15:56.825 Next. 01:15:59.630 --> 01:16:02.060 Here's the Meridian of Tordesillas-- 01:16:02.060 --> 01:16:05.690 the Spanish world and the North American world. 01:16:05.690 --> 01:16:09.020 Here's a typical Laws of the Indies town. 01:16:09.020 --> 01:16:12.930 I think it's Caracas central plaza. 01:16:12.930 --> 01:16:13.430 Next. 01:16:17.860 --> 01:16:25.060 In contrast, the development of the typical Portuguese town, 01:16:25.060 --> 01:16:28.180 as you can see from its early stages, 01:16:28.180 --> 01:16:31.025 has developed long strips. 01:16:31.025 --> 01:16:31.525 Next. 01:16:35.560 --> 01:16:40.580 Again, this is-- thank you. 01:16:40.580 --> 01:16:44.000 This is a thesis done on examining the Laws 01:16:44.000 --> 01:16:46.380 of the Indies in detail. 01:16:46.380 --> 01:16:52.310 It's a thesis here at MIT by Guillermo Frontado. 01:16:52.310 --> 01:16:56.900 He looks at the streets at the plazas 01:16:56.900 --> 01:17:00.260 and interprets the laws in formal terms-- 01:17:00.260 --> 01:17:05.055 what distances they occupy, what sections they produce, 01:17:05.055 --> 01:17:06.630 and so on. 01:17:06.630 --> 01:17:07.130 Next. 01:17:10.720 --> 01:17:14.020 So here is the subsequent development 01:17:14.020 --> 01:17:19.960 of two central capital Latin American cities based 01:17:19.960 --> 01:17:21.130 on the Laws of the Indies. 01:17:21.130 --> 01:17:25.660 Here are the major churches on the central plaza. 01:17:25.660 --> 01:17:30.940 Here you see the adaptation of the central plaza 01:17:30.940 --> 01:17:35.440 theme in subsequent decentralized plazas. 01:17:35.440 --> 01:17:35.940 Next. 01:17:42.390 --> 01:17:49.260 Subdivision of the 6 by 6 mile 1785 system. 01:17:49.260 --> 01:17:49.760 Next. 01:17:52.630 --> 01:17:57.610 Salt Lake City, Harrington, Kansas-- 01:17:57.610 --> 01:17:59.540 built the railway company. 01:17:59.540 --> 01:18:00.040 Next. 01:18:04.790 --> 01:18:08.720 Chicago, which we'll deal with in some detail later on. 01:18:08.720 --> 01:18:16.400 And Burnham's Plan 1907, 1905 Plan 01:18:16.400 --> 01:18:23.250 to centralize the grid of Chicago. 01:18:23.250 --> 01:18:28.380 It's an extraordinary plan, diagonalizing 01:18:28.380 --> 01:18:31.740 the grid towards the center. 01:18:31.740 --> 01:18:35.905 It's kind of attempt cosmetize Chicago. 01:18:35.905 --> 01:18:36.405 Next. 01:18:39.650 --> 01:18:43.490 1811 Plan. 01:18:43.490 --> 01:18:46.280 Again, this is out of focus. 01:18:46.280 --> 01:18:48.740 Now, why then change this. 01:18:48.740 --> 01:18:54.060 The story of Central Park is another story. 01:18:54.060 --> 01:18:55.280 Next. 01:18:55.280 --> 01:19:00.410 The inevitable connections of the east and west, 01:19:00.410 --> 01:19:04.280 maintaining the grid, while still producing 01:19:04.280 --> 01:19:06.870 a major public garden. 01:19:06.870 --> 01:19:07.370 Next. 01:19:10.330 --> 01:19:18.310 The cattaneo model-- that is, dispersing open space 01:19:18.310 --> 01:19:22.180 throughout the system and having different widths of roads 01:19:22.180 --> 01:19:23.710 is part of the system. 01:19:23.710 --> 01:19:24.730 Next. 01:19:24.730 --> 01:19:32.150 Savannah, Georgia-- still a marvelous town, 01:19:32.150 --> 01:19:35.610 and a town which resisted here. 01:19:35.610 --> 01:19:38.720 There's a book called the Night of Garden. 01:19:38.720 --> 01:19:39.890 What's the book? 01:19:39.890 --> 01:19:43.600 Anybody know the book? 01:19:43.600 --> 01:19:47.680 Which talks about Savannah's decision 01:19:47.680 --> 01:19:52.300 not to take large companies, like insurance companies 01:19:52.300 --> 01:19:55.090 as headquarters because of their attempt 01:19:55.090 --> 01:19:57.260 to keep the local system. 01:19:57.260 --> 01:19:57.760 Next. 01:20:00.390 --> 01:20:02.540 And a few of the modern examples. 01:20:02.540 --> 01:20:05.250 This is Soria y Mata, the Spaniard's plan 01:20:05.250 --> 01:20:12.420 for linearizing the outskirts of Madrid, a linear model being 01:20:12.420 --> 01:20:15.630 a very popular model, taken essentially 01:20:15.630 --> 01:20:18.715 from a mass fabrication system. 01:20:18.715 --> 01:20:19.215 Next. 01:20:21.870 --> 01:20:29.670 [INAUDIBLE] the affirming steed, the magnificent steed, 01:20:29.670 --> 01:20:31.020 the superb steed. 01:20:31.020 --> 01:20:35.410 The engine of the express train, the steam engine 01:20:35.410 --> 01:20:38.220 which people went to see. 01:20:38.220 --> 01:20:42.570 And the Ascoral Plan, which Corbusier was one of, 01:20:42.570 --> 01:20:51.880 1940, a plan to link Europe, to linearize Europe. 01:20:51.880 --> 01:20:52.380 Next. 01:20:56.420 --> 01:21:00.740 Captain [? Chambliss's ?] plan for linking New York 01:21:00.740 --> 01:21:08.510 and Washington with a public train system that 01:21:08.510 --> 01:21:10.400 had an effect on the local-- that 01:21:10.400 --> 01:21:15.020 fed off the agricultural land next to it. 01:21:15.020 --> 01:21:19.340 Somebody called it a horizontal skyscraper. 01:21:19.340 --> 01:21:24.860 Kenzo Tange's 1960 plan for the linearizing Tokyo 01:21:24.860 --> 01:21:28.820 and creating a greater use of the harbor, of the water. 01:21:28.820 --> 01:21:31.630 Next. 01:21:31.630 --> 01:21:38.500 Stupid plans like this by Jonah Friedman to linearize Paris. 01:21:38.500 --> 01:21:41.470 Absolute madness-- should lock people up. 01:21:45.680 --> 01:21:46.180 Next. 01:21:49.880 --> 01:21:53.930 The fascination with bringing together 01:21:53.930 --> 01:21:56.570 a number of mechanical forces-- 01:21:56.570 --> 01:22:03.590 train, bus, pedestrian, and the many schemas 01:22:03.590 --> 01:22:09.710 for maximizing density in New York. 01:22:09.710 --> 01:22:14.840 The stupidity of the Archigram proposal for moving. 01:22:14.840 --> 01:22:18.770 Archigram would have worked very well in Egypt 01:22:18.770 --> 01:22:21.830 where you had no investment in permanent sites, 01:22:21.830 --> 01:22:23.660 but you moved around. 01:22:23.660 --> 01:22:27.530 This is the grasshopper city, which moves around. 01:22:27.530 --> 01:22:29.870 If there's anything we've learned historically, 01:22:29.870 --> 01:22:34.790 that the inertia of cities in modern times 01:22:34.790 --> 01:22:37.670 maintains this position. 01:22:37.670 --> 01:22:41.870 I've said this before, that you can count the number of cities. 01:22:41.870 --> 01:22:44.360 There are cities in trouble like Detroit, 01:22:44.360 --> 01:22:49.460 but there's no disappearance of cities, or very few, 01:22:49.460 --> 01:22:52.455 compared to previous times. 01:22:52.455 --> 01:22:52.955 Next. 01:22:56.980 --> 01:23:00.300 It's called Buckminster Fuller and notion 01:23:00.300 --> 01:23:04.230 of using a single machine to cover 01:23:04.230 --> 01:23:06.760 the whole of the city of Manhattan. 01:23:06.760 --> 01:23:07.260 Next. 01:23:10.540 --> 01:23:12.710 I think we end here. 01:23:12.710 --> 01:23:15.400 This is Lord Behrens' proposition 01:23:15.400 --> 01:23:18.610 for the AEG factory-- 01:23:18.610 --> 01:23:21.760 just about done-- in Berlin showing 01:23:21.760 --> 01:23:27.340 the wonderful correct place for every worker in the system. 01:23:27.340 --> 01:23:36.130 And here the nightmare of Soweto outside Johannesburg, or part 01:23:36.130 --> 01:23:40.240 of Johannesburg, where race created 01:23:40.240 --> 01:23:47.290 a new town in which the machine model is exemplified 01:23:47.290 --> 01:23:50.470 par excellence with no pretension 01:23:50.470 --> 01:23:55.630 paid to anything else but the disposition of houses 01:23:55.630 --> 01:23:57.800 in free space. 01:23:57.800 --> 01:23:59.350 OK.