1 00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:02,520 The following content is provided under a Creative 2 00:00:02,520 --> 00:00:03,970 Commons license. 3 00:00:03,970 --> 00:00:06,360 Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare 4 00:00:06,360 --> 00:00:10,660 continue to offer high quality educational resources for free. 5 00:00:10,660 --> 00:00:13,350 To make a donation or view additional materials 6 00:00:13,350 --> 00:00:17,190 from hundreds of MIT courses, visit MIT OpenCourseWare 7 00:00:17,190 --> 00:00:18,326 at ocw.mit.edu. 8 00:00:28,620 --> 00:00:31,790 JULIAN BEINART: We start the last section. 9 00:00:31,790 --> 00:00:36,840 We have about-- there's about a month left. 10 00:00:36,840 --> 00:00:43,260 And I want to try to deal with as much 11 00:00:43,260 --> 00:00:48,180 of the current understanding of urbanism 12 00:00:48,180 --> 00:00:51,150 as we can squeeze into it. 13 00:00:51,150 --> 00:00:56,640 My focus will be very much on architecture and urbanism 14 00:00:56,640 --> 00:01:06,570 and not much on urban economics or urban social policy. 15 00:01:06,570 --> 00:01:13,730 This class is really about the former cities, and we have to-- 16 00:01:13,730 --> 00:01:19,290 I will be relying for today's class 17 00:01:19,290 --> 00:01:23,775 on a number of people's writing. 18 00:01:26,460 --> 00:01:32,050 But if you want, in the required reading, 19 00:01:32,050 --> 00:01:34,500 there's a piece from Eric Mumford's book. 20 00:01:37,730 --> 00:01:40,700 I don't know if you know or ran into the book at all. 21 00:01:43,310 --> 00:01:49,640 The CIAM discourse on urbanism 1928 to 1960, 22 00:01:49,640 --> 00:01:51,110 it's an excellent book. 23 00:01:54,360 --> 00:01:56,520 Eric Mumford, I think, did his PHD here 24 00:01:56,520 --> 00:02:02,250 and teachers in St. Louis at Washington University. 25 00:02:02,250 --> 00:02:08,470 For those who don't know what CIAM stands for, 26 00:02:08,470 --> 00:02:13,720 it was the assembly of modern architects 27 00:02:13,720 --> 00:02:17,620 starting in [? Lazzaro's ?] in 1928 28 00:02:17,620 --> 00:02:25,540 and meeting regularly until they disbanded in 1960. 29 00:02:25,540 --> 00:02:29,230 A great deal of information comes 30 00:02:29,230 --> 00:02:34,060 from the attitudes of these people towards modernism, 31 00:02:34,060 --> 00:02:38,500 and I will quote from a number of them. 32 00:02:38,500 --> 00:02:44,530 My own connection is that I studied history 33 00:02:44,530 --> 00:02:47,830 at [? Gearheart ?] Harvard and the Giedeon-- 34 00:02:47,830 --> 00:02:51,190 Sigfried Gideon, who wrote Space, Time and Architecture-- 35 00:02:51,190 --> 00:02:56,830 probably the most important book of modern architecture-- 36 00:02:56,830 --> 00:03:02,450 and was a key figure with Corbusier and [INAUDIBLE] 37 00:03:02,450 --> 00:03:06,740 to become dean at Harvard in CIAM. 38 00:03:09,670 --> 00:03:14,320 Whatever [? happened ?] to just a fragment of some 39 00:03:14,320 --> 00:03:19,600 of the topics. 40 00:03:19,600 --> 00:03:24,910 My ambition today is to give you some idea 41 00:03:24,910 --> 00:03:27,190 of the content of modernism. 42 00:03:31,200 --> 00:03:34,500 So I've broken it down into 10 categories, 43 00:03:34,500 --> 00:03:42,180 or 10 thematic ideas, which are part of modern urbanism, 44 00:03:42,180 --> 00:03:48,930 or were set forth as ideas which were important to urbanism. 45 00:03:48,930 --> 00:03:58,530 The second page deals with the response to [INAUDIBLE] plan 46 00:03:58,530 --> 00:04:02,210 in Barcelona by modern urbanism. 47 00:04:05,290 --> 00:04:09,100 The third page is a page of drawing 48 00:04:09,100 --> 00:04:14,710 by Gropius characterizing how you delimit 49 00:04:14,710 --> 00:04:19,570 the space between buildings by virtue of light, 50 00:04:19,570 --> 00:04:20,980 or the presence of light. 51 00:04:25,570 --> 00:04:30,140 How it didn't strike Gropius that, in Manhattan, nobody 52 00:04:30,140 --> 00:04:34,340 cares about which direction your building faces? 53 00:04:34,340 --> 00:04:36,380 I suppose, if you have a lot of money, 54 00:04:36,380 --> 00:04:41,000 you can choose a building that faces south 55 00:04:41,000 --> 00:04:43,880 or your view faces south as you can 56 00:04:43,880 --> 00:04:48,075 choose the building which faces onto Central Park or whatever. 57 00:04:50,690 --> 00:04:54,680 But that's an option for very few people. 58 00:04:54,680 --> 00:04:58,025 I don't know people in Manhattan talking about light. 59 00:05:00,770 --> 00:05:02,306 Now what is the-- 60 00:05:05,060 --> 00:05:07,870 how is this diagram of any use to anybody? 61 00:05:11,930 --> 00:05:14,780 AUDIENCE: Well, I mean, it is-- 62 00:05:14,780 --> 00:05:16,635 I know people in Manhattan that talk about. 63 00:05:16,635 --> 00:05:18,760 Like, people still [? renting ?] private apartments 64 00:05:18,760 --> 00:05:21,238 there are curious about the light it gets. 65 00:05:21,238 --> 00:05:22,113 JULIAN BEINART: Good. 66 00:05:22,113 --> 00:05:22,920 AUDIENCE: Yeah. 67 00:05:22,920 --> 00:05:27,110 And I guess if you're thinking more about rather than design 68 00:05:27,110 --> 00:05:30,830 of building but design of streets, you know, 69 00:05:30,830 --> 00:05:35,070 this diagram could be useful then. 70 00:05:35,070 --> 00:05:37,170 JULIAN BEINART: Yes. 71 00:05:37,170 --> 00:05:41,370 Gropius didn't know that, in the early town planning 72 00:05:41,370 --> 00:05:44,670 legislation of Manhattan, light to the streets 73 00:05:44,670 --> 00:05:46,800 was always taken into account. 74 00:05:46,800 --> 00:05:49,810 The fact is a good thesis done by a British women 75 00:05:49,810 --> 00:05:54,300 a few years ago looking at that phenomenon 76 00:05:54,300 --> 00:06:00,210 that sidewalks were always important in the judgment 77 00:06:00,210 --> 00:06:05,505 of rules about tall buildings in Manhattan unlike Tokyo. 78 00:06:08,160 --> 00:06:16,530 Tokyo, it's very seldom that you find overwhelming density 79 00:06:16,530 --> 00:06:21,000 on any of the major streets in Manhattan. 80 00:06:21,000 --> 00:06:30,690 Part of my theory is that a grid system articulates people 81 00:06:30,690 --> 00:06:35,660 in different ways than linear systems do. 82 00:06:35,660 --> 00:06:38,480 And there's not only one main street in Manhattan. 83 00:06:41,850 --> 00:06:49,790 It prevails as a grid system, but it's not true in Tokyo 84 00:06:49,790 --> 00:06:58,850 where densities on street level are so overwhelming that you 85 00:06:58,850 --> 00:07:03,050 can't walk in the opposite direction to traffic 86 00:07:03,050 --> 00:07:08,960 at 6 o'clock in the evening particularly trying 87 00:07:08,960 --> 00:07:10,550 to get your subway station. 88 00:07:10,550 --> 00:07:13,790 This is city stuff. 89 00:07:13,790 --> 00:07:22,430 But Gropius was a strange man. 90 00:07:25,460 --> 00:07:31,280 He came to speak in our class at Harvard in Gideon's class. 91 00:07:34,670 --> 00:07:36,590 Let me just finish going through this. 92 00:07:40,280 --> 00:07:43,850 The next page is something that we'll go through a little 93 00:07:43,850 --> 00:07:45,620 carefully together. 94 00:07:45,620 --> 00:07:51,440 It's David Harvey's contrast between modernity 95 00:07:51,440 --> 00:07:54,950 and postmodernity. 96 00:07:54,950 --> 00:07:58,280 I don't agree with the term postmodern. 97 00:07:58,280 --> 00:08:01,100 Postmodern really applies to the styling 98 00:08:01,100 --> 00:08:03,530 of architecture and literature. 99 00:08:03,530 --> 00:08:10,700 And mostly it doesn't have much counterpart in urbanism. 100 00:08:10,700 --> 00:08:13,610 The next page is one of the [? existing ?] 101 00:08:13,610 --> 00:08:18,905 minimum systems that CIAM were very preoccupied with that 102 00:08:18,905 --> 00:08:25,910 was trying to deduce the minimum amount of space for family 103 00:08:25,910 --> 00:08:31,970 along with the notion that minima would contribute 104 00:08:31,970 --> 00:08:34,250 to the problem of size-- 105 00:08:34,250 --> 00:08:37,460 not size of unit but size of population. 106 00:08:40,659 --> 00:08:45,370 The next page is a summary of 1930 107 00:08:45,370 --> 00:08:48,460 versus 1950 in CIAM discussion. 108 00:08:48,460 --> 00:08:50,310 I'll go through that with you as well. 109 00:08:55,380 --> 00:09:00,270 What is extraordinary about Gideon's class at Harvard 110 00:09:00,270 --> 00:09:03,900 was the absence of what we've been spending 111 00:09:03,900 --> 00:09:09,570 all our time on dealing with the origins of modernism 112 00:09:09,570 --> 00:09:12,480 from 1750 onward. 113 00:09:12,480 --> 00:09:17,520 There was no notion that there had been changes in demography. 114 00:09:20,800 --> 00:09:25,280 You'll recall my quoting the British historian, 115 00:09:25,280 --> 00:09:28,850 [? Llewellyn ?] in saying that modernism starts 116 00:09:28,850 --> 00:09:35,150 with the increase in the life expectancy of old people 117 00:09:35,150 --> 00:09:40,130 and the decrease in infant mortality. 118 00:09:40,130 --> 00:09:43,530 People like Malthus along the way-- 119 00:09:43,530 --> 00:09:49,610 these are fundamental aspect of urbanism in my mind. 120 00:09:49,610 --> 00:09:52,490 Gideon was only interested in two-- 121 00:09:52,490 --> 00:09:55,550 first of all, he hated the 19th century 122 00:09:55,550 --> 00:10:01,180 because it didn't produce any architecture of significance. 123 00:10:01,180 --> 00:10:03,850 Gideon would fly in from Switzerland 124 00:10:03,850 --> 00:10:05,710 to give our lectures. 125 00:10:05,710 --> 00:10:10,240 And he'd say on Sunday afternoon he walked around Boston 126 00:10:10,240 --> 00:10:15,820 and looked at the terrible neoclassical furniture 127 00:10:15,820 --> 00:10:19,210 in the windows of the department stores. 128 00:10:19,210 --> 00:10:23,260 He couldn't understand why modern furniture 129 00:10:23,260 --> 00:10:25,600 wasn't available in Boston. 130 00:10:25,600 --> 00:10:31,510 Of course it was available, but it wasn't particularly popular. 131 00:10:31,510 --> 00:10:35,101 But instead of talking about his-- 132 00:10:35,101 --> 00:10:39,500 for Gideon, modernism in architecture 133 00:10:39,500 --> 00:10:43,510 had two important 19th century ancestries. 134 00:10:43,510 --> 00:10:48,430 One was in the adventure of painting-- 135 00:10:48,430 --> 00:10:51,310 the fact that painting in impressionism 136 00:10:51,310 --> 00:10:53,950 took account of lack of light-- 137 00:10:53,950 --> 00:10:57,220 according to him, took account of the lack of light 138 00:10:57,220 --> 00:11:00,460 in the industrial city and through pointillism 139 00:11:00,460 --> 00:11:06,700 and through opening up the canvas to light, 140 00:11:06,700 --> 00:11:10,180 a preoccupation that Corbusier also 141 00:11:10,180 --> 00:11:16,210 with his [INAUDIBLE] therapeutic interests emphasized. 142 00:11:16,210 --> 00:11:20,770 The second one was the advent of modern engineers. 143 00:11:20,770 --> 00:11:25,540 Gideon spoke endlessly about [? Myer's ?] building bridges 144 00:11:25,540 --> 00:11:27,580 in Switzerland. 145 00:11:27,580 --> 00:11:33,670 And there were two themes to modernism 146 00:11:33,670 --> 00:11:40,840 which architecture had bypassed in the 19th century. 147 00:11:40,840 --> 00:11:46,990 Later on, the history of London, or Paris, or Haussmann, 148 00:11:46,990 --> 00:11:53,890 or [? Engels ?] in Manchester of the growth of population 149 00:11:53,890 --> 00:11:58,330 because the taking over by the state of many 150 00:11:58,330 --> 00:12:02,980 of the social functions of the church 151 00:12:02,980 --> 00:12:05,590 that the advent of social housing 152 00:12:05,590 --> 00:12:09,850 by the state for the first time in history and so on 153 00:12:09,850 --> 00:12:11,590 and so on and so on. 154 00:12:11,590 --> 00:12:14,680 It was just a blank. 155 00:12:14,680 --> 00:12:17,610 And much of urbanism in architecture 156 00:12:17,610 --> 00:12:23,680 has followed that style of rhetoric 157 00:12:23,680 --> 00:12:28,120 that you skip from the 18th century to the 21st century. 158 00:12:31,540 --> 00:12:35,350 Whereas my argument, I hope I've convinced you 159 00:12:35,350 --> 00:12:39,070 that the 19th century as significant 160 00:12:39,070 --> 00:12:41,755 in our understanding a number of issues. 161 00:12:45,980 --> 00:12:49,560 That is still relevant. 162 00:12:49,560 --> 00:12:54,390 Anyway, what I'd like to do is just go through these 10 items 163 00:12:54,390 --> 00:12:57,945 and make some comments on each and quote from sources. 164 00:13:00,570 --> 00:13:02,615 The first is the scientific origin. 165 00:13:07,950 --> 00:13:12,000 There was a sense that science was emerging 166 00:13:12,000 --> 00:13:17,700 in a way which could not only play 167 00:13:17,700 --> 00:13:21,390 a role in individual design decision 168 00:13:21,390 --> 00:13:26,580 but provide a collective understanding, which 169 00:13:26,580 --> 00:13:28,650 art perhaps didn't have. 170 00:13:31,340 --> 00:13:39,860 For instance, many architects of the time 171 00:13:39,860 --> 00:13:43,790 adopted Venetian nurturing of an elite community of artists 172 00:13:43,790 --> 00:13:48,380 who would discover spiritual truth in the uniting of art 173 00:13:48,380 --> 00:13:55,130 and science and then reveal the truth to the rest of mankind. 174 00:13:55,130 --> 00:13:57,260 So it's both art and science that 175 00:13:57,260 --> 00:14:01,940 are necessary for an elite group of thinkers 176 00:14:01,940 --> 00:14:05,320 to come to a conclusion. 177 00:14:08,080 --> 00:14:10,960 Man brings into place unlimited power 178 00:14:10,960 --> 00:14:14,920 for the calculating, planning, and melding of all things. 179 00:14:14,920 --> 00:14:19,600 Science says research is an absolutely necessary form 180 00:14:19,600 --> 00:14:23,050 of this establishing of self in the world. 181 00:14:23,050 --> 00:14:25,330 It is one of the pathways upon which 182 00:14:25,330 --> 00:14:29,095 the modern age reaches toward fulfillment of its essence. 183 00:14:38,510 --> 00:14:42,815 The [INAUDIBLE] scientific study of space. 184 00:14:45,540 --> 00:14:55,990 Corbusier writes in the CIAM conference 185 00:14:55,990 --> 00:15:00,130 in Frankfurt in 1929. 186 00:15:00,130 --> 00:15:03,250 He writes about the [? minima ?] house problem in his book. 187 00:15:11,280 --> 00:15:14,400 The talks stretched the biological nature of dwelling, 188 00:15:14,400 --> 00:15:16,140 the poverty and the insufficiency 189 00:15:16,140 --> 00:15:18,840 of traditional technique, the need 190 00:15:18,840 --> 00:15:22,020 for standardization, industrialization, 191 00:15:22,020 --> 00:15:23,250 and tailorization-- 192 00:15:31,815 --> 00:15:35,090 a phenomenon with modern architectural science 193 00:15:35,090 --> 00:15:36,485 [INAUDIBLE] the exact. 194 00:15:40,080 --> 00:15:44,730 It's curious that this notion of science 195 00:15:44,730 --> 00:15:49,920 really was in contrast to what science was dealing with-- 196 00:15:49,920 --> 00:15:55,170 uncertainty, relativity, stochastic ideas, 197 00:15:55,170 --> 00:15:57,480 indeterminacy-- 198 00:15:57,480 --> 00:16:01,920 at a time when these people were trying 199 00:16:01,920 --> 00:16:06,990 to use science as an ally in making formal decisions 200 00:16:06,990 --> 00:16:08,110 about urbanism. 201 00:16:12,920 --> 00:16:20,450 In Germany-- I mentioned their names before-- 202 00:16:20,450 --> 00:16:30,170 the great theorist, Baumeister 1833 to 1917, his book in 1876 203 00:16:30,170 --> 00:16:32,600 credited with orienting city building 204 00:16:32,600 --> 00:16:35,060 around traffic problems. 205 00:16:35,060 --> 00:16:37,970 Traffic engineering, or the system of movement, 206 00:16:37,970 --> 00:16:45,710 would be seen as a scientific measure 207 00:16:45,710 --> 00:16:50,990 whereas today we are interested in relativistic relationships 208 00:16:50,990 --> 00:16:55,940 between public transportation and private transportation. 209 00:16:55,940 --> 00:16:59,960 In this discourse of modernism, public transportation 210 00:16:59,960 --> 00:17:04,623 doesn't appear to have been a phenomenon worth taking 211 00:17:04,623 --> 00:17:05,165 into account. 212 00:17:07,960 --> 00:17:12,010 [? Stuben, ?] the traffic systems and direction flow 213 00:17:12,010 --> 00:17:14,544 form the basis for the construction of cities. 214 00:17:18,430 --> 00:17:23,290 Germany played a role in the development of public health-- 215 00:17:27,220 --> 00:17:29,155 also in the origins of zoning. 216 00:17:36,710 --> 00:17:41,330 Learning was a necessary device to maintain some sense of order 217 00:17:41,330 --> 00:17:44,000 and to protect the general public in a period 218 00:17:44,000 --> 00:17:47,015 of uncontrolled growth and [? on ?] [? bridge ?] 219 00:17:47,015 --> 00:17:50,490 [? learned ?] speculation. 220 00:17:50,490 --> 00:17:53,310 Well, that sounds very German. 221 00:17:56,630 --> 00:18:06,840 But this notion that science could be an ally 222 00:18:06,840 --> 00:18:13,350 was very deeply rooted in the idea of the scientific study 223 00:18:13,350 --> 00:18:13,910 of space. 224 00:18:22,930 --> 00:18:30,790 The second was the breaking up of life into categories. 225 00:18:30,790 --> 00:18:36,790 CIAM 4 in Athens published the charter 226 00:18:36,790 --> 00:18:45,010 of Athens, which became the subject of much debate. 227 00:18:45,010 --> 00:18:47,920 I quote, "The keys to urbanism were, 228 00:18:47,920 --> 00:18:52,600 number one, a place to work, a place for recreation, 229 00:18:52,600 --> 00:18:56,320 and the circulation system." 230 00:18:56,320 --> 00:19:00,220 A place to live, a place to work, a place for recreation-- 231 00:19:00,220 --> 00:19:03,145 and the circulation system linking all three. 232 00:19:17,630 --> 00:19:22,130 Today, the relationship between these is not categorical. 233 00:19:26,110 --> 00:19:34,110 Even at the time, Lewis Mumford responded 234 00:19:34,110 --> 00:19:38,100 to this Athens Charter. 235 00:19:38,100 --> 00:19:42,210 He was asked by Jose Luis Sert to be a then-- he later became 236 00:19:42,210 --> 00:19:45,210 dean at the GSD at Harvard. 237 00:19:45,210 --> 00:19:52,860 To write a foreword to Sert's book, Can Our Cities Survive? 238 00:19:52,860 --> 00:19:57,660 Can Our Cities Survive is about as perfect 239 00:19:57,660 --> 00:20:01,320 a document of modern urbanism that exists. 240 00:20:01,320 --> 00:20:06,060 And if you're interested in the subject, you should look at it. 241 00:20:06,060 --> 00:20:09,345 Mumford replied-- wrote a letter to Sert. 242 00:20:13,760 --> 00:20:15,920 "The four functions of the city do not 243 00:20:15,920 --> 00:20:20,450 seem to me to adequately cover the ground of city planning. 244 00:20:20,450 --> 00:20:23,122 Dwelling, work, recreation, and transportation 245 00:20:23,122 --> 00:20:25,160 are all important. 246 00:20:25,160 --> 00:20:27,390 But what of the political education 247 00:20:27,390 --> 00:20:30,410 and cultural function of the city? 248 00:20:30,410 --> 00:20:33,470 What of the part played by the disposition plan 249 00:20:33,470 --> 00:20:36,350 of the buildings concerned with these functions 250 00:20:36,350 --> 00:20:40,070 in the whole evolution of the city design? 251 00:20:40,070 --> 00:20:42,940 The organs of political and cultural [INAUDIBLE] 252 00:20:42,940 --> 00:20:46,490 are from my standpoint the distinguishing marks 253 00:20:46,490 --> 00:20:47,900 of the city. 254 00:20:47,900 --> 00:20:52,040 Without them, there is only an urban mass. 255 00:20:52,040 --> 00:20:57,950 I regard their mission as I find their mission 256 00:20:57,950 --> 00:21:00,560 as almost inexplicable. 257 00:21:00,560 --> 00:21:03,500 Unless some attention is paid to this, 258 00:21:03,500 --> 00:21:07,930 I have to decline writing the foreword." 259 00:21:12,930 --> 00:21:17,165 The third is the modern spirit. 260 00:21:21,160 --> 00:21:32,080 Modernism was associated with a different way 261 00:21:32,080 --> 00:21:36,560 of thinking about the world. 262 00:21:36,560 --> 00:21:41,600 It was not linked to anything before it. 263 00:21:44,470 --> 00:21:49,940 Gropius didn't teach history at Harvard when he was dean. 264 00:21:52,720 --> 00:21:58,870 No advocacy of the dynamic role of what exists 265 00:21:58,870 --> 00:22:05,920 and what is to be modern, but most of all the zeitgeist, 266 00:22:05,920 --> 00:22:08,860 the essential quality of being modern, 267 00:22:08,860 --> 00:22:17,110 was what became culturally associated with architecture 268 00:22:17,110 --> 00:22:20,260 and urbanism although much more with architecture. 269 00:22:37,192 --> 00:22:44,620 The idea that buildings made of mechanical material painted 270 00:22:44,620 --> 00:22:49,720 white or white in intrinsic systems [? three ?] [? years ?] 271 00:22:49,720 --> 00:22:55,540 [? Lewis ?] [INAUDIBLE] postulated free of declaration 272 00:22:55,540 --> 00:23:07,080 was a system of expression that required an anti-historical 273 00:23:07,080 --> 00:23:11,020 and a zeitgeist phenomenon. 274 00:23:15,430 --> 00:23:18,700 This proposed schismatic distinction 275 00:23:18,700 --> 00:23:25,140 between the past and the present was 276 00:23:25,140 --> 00:23:28,890 we've now learned to accept a diachronic view 277 00:23:28,890 --> 00:23:32,940 of the relationship between the past and the present. 278 00:23:32,940 --> 00:23:36,180 But at that time, there was a notion 279 00:23:36,180 --> 00:23:45,660 that, in many of the protagonists, 280 00:23:45,660 --> 00:23:49,170 modernism was a shared phenomenon, which it was. 281 00:23:49,170 --> 00:23:53,920 It was shared with other cultural forms, 282 00:23:53,920 --> 00:23:59,050 but other cultural forms didn't have the obligation 283 00:23:59,050 --> 00:24:05,200 to deal as CIAM in 1928 at its first conference 284 00:24:05,200 --> 00:24:06,445 spoke about urbanism. 285 00:24:09,370 --> 00:24:12,790 It was possible in Vienna for Brahms 286 00:24:12,790 --> 00:24:17,020 to die in 1894 somewhere around there. 287 00:24:17,020 --> 00:24:21,110 But for revolution, modern revolution, to take place, 288 00:24:21,110 --> 00:24:25,420 which included Mahler's [? Schoenberg ?] 289 00:24:25,420 --> 00:24:30,470 and a number of people. 290 00:24:30,470 --> 00:24:40,430 But he went in modernism and didn't have much continuity. 291 00:24:40,430 --> 00:24:48,730 The Boston Symphony orchestra still plays, perplexedly to me, 292 00:24:48,730 --> 00:24:51,850 music which was written in the late 18th century 293 00:24:51,850 --> 00:24:57,940 and early 19th century in the mid 19th century. 294 00:24:57,940 --> 00:25:11,320 Modern music has not persisted for reasons which are not 295 00:25:11,320 --> 00:25:13,480 that associated with urbanism. 296 00:25:13,480 --> 00:25:23,410 But modern literature has had a much more successful 297 00:25:23,410 --> 00:25:26,080 penetration. 298 00:25:26,080 --> 00:25:30,250 As for the advent of new forms of cultural expression-- 299 00:25:30,250 --> 00:25:33,370 the film, for instance, television, and so on-- 300 00:25:33,370 --> 00:25:34,660 these are postmodern. 301 00:25:37,440 --> 00:25:43,440 I mean, in 1928, there were fewer cars in Europe 302 00:25:43,440 --> 00:25:48,750 than they were in Los Angeles per capita. 303 00:25:48,750 --> 00:25:49,470 I'm sure. 304 00:25:49,470 --> 00:25:51,690 I haven't checked my figures, but I 305 00:25:51,690 --> 00:25:57,380 think it's around about true. 306 00:25:57,380 --> 00:26:07,130 So the notion that modernism was a permanent exercise and added 307 00:26:07,130 --> 00:26:13,360 dogma associated with its presence 308 00:26:13,360 --> 00:26:25,360 gave the sense that to be modern was a unique time and one 309 00:26:25,360 --> 00:26:26,080 that was endless. 310 00:26:29,380 --> 00:26:32,035 Or if it wasn't endless, you didn't care that it wasn't. 311 00:26:34,840 --> 00:26:42,100 Space-time was selected out of the spirit of time and not 312 00:26:42,100 --> 00:26:46,090 related backwards nor forwards. 313 00:26:46,090 --> 00:26:50,590 The idea of change was not a significant function 314 00:26:50,590 --> 00:26:51,460 of modernism. 315 00:26:57,710 --> 00:27:01,160 We'll go into some of these changes. 316 00:27:01,160 --> 00:27:02,765 Let me get through this more quickly. 317 00:27:10,600 --> 00:27:19,520 There was much more belief in believing that the world could 318 00:27:19,520 --> 00:27:24,810 be made differently, or not be made differently 319 00:27:24,810 --> 00:27:26,854 but behave differently. 320 00:27:31,300 --> 00:27:34,650 The notion of constant improvement, 321 00:27:34,650 --> 00:27:40,570 the utopia of European social democracy, 322 00:27:40,570 --> 00:27:46,680 the polities of equity, the Russians, 323 00:27:46,680 --> 00:27:52,200 the extraordinary that in 1924, El Lissitzky, 324 00:27:52,200 --> 00:27:54,750 the Russian painter and constructivist [? Aaskov ?] 325 00:27:54,750 --> 00:28:01,470 [INAUDIBLE] to join him to form an international European 326 00:28:01,470 --> 00:28:06,390 organization of modern architecture. 327 00:28:06,390 --> 00:28:09,600 Corbusier didn't agree. 328 00:28:09,600 --> 00:28:16,920 But in 1928, [INAUDIBLE] was organized by [INAUDIBLE] Hannes 329 00:28:16,920 --> 00:28:18,840 Meyer, and Hans Schmidt-- 330 00:28:18,840 --> 00:28:21,810 three Swiss socialists. 331 00:28:21,810 --> 00:28:24,360 Hannes Mayer became the head of the Bauhaus 332 00:28:24,360 --> 00:28:26,220 for a short period of time. 333 00:28:26,220 --> 00:28:27,750 But there were three socialists. 334 00:28:27,750 --> 00:28:37,160 And the first declaration at [INAUDIBLE] 335 00:28:37,160 --> 00:28:47,160 was very much in a kind of interest in urbanism of a kind. 336 00:28:47,160 --> 00:28:53,390 Let me just-- [? Lazaro's. ?] This 337 00:28:53,390 --> 00:28:56,360 is a statement from that meeting. 338 00:28:56,360 --> 00:28:59,510 "Urbanism is the organization of all the functions 339 00:28:59,510 --> 00:29:01,670 of collective life." 340 00:29:01,670 --> 00:29:03,440 Collective life? 341 00:29:03,440 --> 00:29:06,050 Why collective life? 342 00:29:06,050 --> 00:29:09,170 "It extends over both urban agglomerations 343 00:29:09,170 --> 00:29:11,090 and over the countryside." 344 00:29:11,090 --> 00:29:11,590 God. 345 00:29:11,590 --> 00:29:15,650 This sounds like Los Angeles. 346 00:29:15,650 --> 00:29:17,556 1928. 347 00:29:17,556 --> 00:29:21,530 "Urbanization cannot be conditioned by the pretensions 348 00:29:21,530 --> 00:29:25,280 of a preexisted aestheticism." 349 00:29:25,280 --> 00:29:27,140 Forget about history. 350 00:29:27,140 --> 00:29:29,600 "Its essence is of a functional order." 351 00:29:32,570 --> 00:29:36,710 the third point under urbanism insisted the chaotic division 352 00:29:36,710 --> 00:29:39,590 of land resulting in sales, speculations, 353 00:29:39,590 --> 00:29:44,610 inheritance must be abolished by the collective and methodical 354 00:29:44,610 --> 00:29:45,710 land economy. 355 00:29:49,750 --> 00:29:58,330 So throughout CIAM's musing for 40 to 52-- 356 00:29:58,330 --> 00:29:58,830 no. 357 00:29:58,830 --> 00:30:04,470 40 to '28 to '60 is only 32. 358 00:30:07,050 --> 00:30:11,610 32 years it wrestled with this business 359 00:30:11,610 --> 00:30:15,630 of what its political identity or its attitudes 360 00:30:15,630 --> 00:30:17,430 towards politics should be. 361 00:30:21,710 --> 00:30:27,350 We'll touch on this again in a bit. 362 00:30:30,620 --> 00:30:35,470 The technological imperative-- making things 363 00:30:35,470 --> 00:30:39,240 as if they look as if they're made by machine. 364 00:30:39,240 --> 00:30:40,455 Standardization. 365 00:30:44,160 --> 00:30:54,540 Corbusier says, "I propose one single building for all nations 366 00:30:54,540 --> 00:30:55,500 and climates." 367 00:31:02,430 --> 00:31:03,390 Prefabrication. 368 00:31:08,050 --> 00:31:11,950 Buckminster Fuller's envelopes-- automobile. 369 00:31:18,700 --> 00:31:27,000 It's interesting the influence of Henry Ford in this debate. 370 00:31:27,000 --> 00:31:34,990 Henry Ford in 1933, or in 1930 somewhere, 371 00:31:34,990 --> 00:31:39,010 tried to buy from Congress the first dam that 372 00:31:39,010 --> 00:31:42,130 later became the Tennessee Valley Authority in Muscle 373 00:31:42,130 --> 00:31:43,600 Shoals in Alabama. 374 00:31:46,440 --> 00:31:52,380 He advocated a linear city of 75 kilometers-- 375 00:31:52,380 --> 00:31:54,870 75 miles perhaps. 376 00:31:54,870 --> 00:32:01,020 I don't recall-- based upon a machine like image 377 00:32:01,020 --> 00:32:04,140 of a conveyor belt system, which he developed 378 00:32:04,140 --> 00:32:09,490 in Detroit, coupled with an agricultural component, 379 00:32:09,490 --> 00:32:13,500 so people who worked in the industry could at the same time 380 00:32:13,500 --> 00:32:17,820 be associated with agriculture. 381 00:32:17,820 --> 00:32:25,410 He's architect of a [? kind-- ?] took part in over 300 projects 382 00:32:25,410 --> 00:32:27,840 in Russia. 383 00:32:27,840 --> 00:32:34,410 Henry Ford was revered as a god of industrialization 384 00:32:34,410 --> 00:32:38,010 together with FW Taylor of the Harvard Business School. 385 00:32:40,530 --> 00:32:42,720 Modern efficiency. 386 00:32:42,720 --> 00:32:47,130 These were fundamental claims for the organization of a city. 387 00:32:53,560 --> 00:32:58,510 Henry Ford was fascinated by the linear adventures 388 00:32:58,510 --> 00:33:02,650 of [? Captain ?] [? Chambers. ?] You will not remember that I 389 00:33:02,650 --> 00:33:08,260 showed you the image of his plan to link New York and Baltimore. 390 00:33:08,260 --> 00:33:09,790 I think it's New York and Baltimore 391 00:33:09,790 --> 00:33:13,450 with a linear ongoing structure. 392 00:33:13,450 --> 00:33:15,670 AUDIENCE: Baltimore in DC? 393 00:33:15,670 --> 00:33:17,800 JULIAN BEINART: Was it Baltimore in DC? 394 00:33:17,800 --> 00:33:19,420 Yeah. 395 00:33:19,420 --> 00:33:20,420 Not New York. 396 00:33:20,420 --> 00:33:20,920 Yeah. 397 00:33:27,060 --> 00:33:30,960 So it was the Russians and Henry Ford 398 00:33:30,960 --> 00:33:35,100 were fascinated by this new way of processing 399 00:33:35,100 --> 00:33:36,615 industrial material. 400 00:33:40,820 --> 00:33:50,000 The open-ended CIAM took this as instructions 401 00:33:50,000 --> 00:33:53,330 for thinking about modern urbanism. 402 00:33:58,450 --> 00:34:00,685 It's an extraordinary time. 403 00:34:04,810 --> 00:34:08,290 And the capitalism of Henry Ford could 404 00:34:08,290 --> 00:34:11,530 be associated with the communism, the emerging 405 00:34:11,530 --> 00:34:14,500 communism, or Soviet Russia. 406 00:34:14,500 --> 00:34:23,449 And all of the conflicts which emerged in that situation 407 00:34:23,449 --> 00:34:28,489 were never taken as important expressions-- 408 00:34:28,489 --> 00:34:32,000 important themes in the construction of cities. 409 00:34:32,000 --> 00:34:34,199 Henry Ford was an anti-Semite. 410 00:34:34,199 --> 00:34:35,810 Albert Kahn was a Jew. 411 00:34:39,449 --> 00:34:43,230 Henry Ford believed that the American worker 412 00:34:43,230 --> 00:34:48,060 should have access to nature as the same time as being 413 00:34:48,060 --> 00:34:50,730 part of an industrial system. 414 00:34:50,730 --> 00:34:55,230 Nature was never a preoccupation of CIAM at all. 415 00:34:55,230 --> 00:34:57,390 It never appears in the debate. 416 00:34:57,390 --> 00:34:58,870 Nature was taken for granted. 417 00:35:12,020 --> 00:35:20,740 It's curious that nature only appears in the urban dialogue 418 00:35:20,740 --> 00:35:24,280 either through the work of great landscape architects 419 00:35:24,280 --> 00:35:33,190 like Olmsted in this country but only through a late recognition 420 00:35:33,190 --> 00:35:37,570 of nature as being multilayered as having 421 00:35:37,570 --> 00:35:41,170 ecological consequences. 422 00:35:41,170 --> 00:35:43,930 If you look at the-- as I said before-- 423 00:35:43,930 --> 00:35:49,390 history of the Tennessee Valley Authority, first of all, 424 00:35:49,390 --> 00:35:55,630 Roosevelt is rejected by the Southern urbanist, the Southern 425 00:35:55,630 --> 00:35:58,650 Agrarian Community, because he doesn't 426 00:35:58,650 --> 00:36:01,640 understand their way of living. 427 00:36:01,640 --> 00:36:07,000 Roosevelt's modernism is based on a mixture 428 00:36:07,000 --> 00:36:11,280 of water, green, and rebuilding, and resuscitation. 429 00:36:14,520 --> 00:36:17,760 The Tennessee Valley Authority runs out 430 00:36:17,760 --> 00:36:21,570 of [? endured ?] electorate-- by virtue of its success, 431 00:36:21,570 --> 00:36:27,810 runs out of the capacity of its water supply 432 00:36:27,810 --> 00:36:33,495 to provide enough electricity for industry, 433 00:36:33,495 --> 00:36:34,860 so it switches to coal. 434 00:36:37,720 --> 00:36:44,500 Coal is a ruthless energy system. 435 00:36:47,060 --> 00:36:53,485 It is the largest ecological disaster in the United States. 436 00:36:56,530 --> 00:37:01,210 Coal strip mining is slowly prohibited. 437 00:37:01,210 --> 00:37:05,840 The snail darter controversy set in motion 438 00:37:05,840 --> 00:37:10,570 the whole opening up of the American interest 439 00:37:10,570 --> 00:37:16,990 in rare species and in the preservation of nature. 440 00:37:16,990 --> 00:37:25,210 The atomic bomb is conceived of and manufactured. 441 00:37:25,210 --> 00:37:30,430 At least one is manufactured in the Tennessee Valley Authority. 442 00:37:30,430 --> 00:37:34,730 That's another anti-natural phenomenon. 443 00:37:34,730 --> 00:37:37,870 So the conflict between nature as it 444 00:37:37,870 --> 00:37:47,750 emerges from about 1930 onward to 2020, 445 00:37:47,750 --> 00:37:55,690 the time that we are now in, indicates the absence 446 00:37:55,690 --> 00:38:03,990 of the negative consequences of denying nature 447 00:38:03,990 --> 00:38:05,835 a certain kind of presence. 448 00:38:08,360 --> 00:38:11,280 Roosevelt was very interesting in that regard. 449 00:38:11,280 --> 00:38:14,550 His people, like his advisors like Martin, 450 00:38:14,550 --> 00:38:19,560 Lewis Mumford, and Benton MacKaye 451 00:38:19,560 --> 00:38:23,970 stressed the reconstruction of nature 452 00:38:23,970 --> 00:38:28,470 in the state of great poverty and setbacks 453 00:38:28,470 --> 00:38:31,350 and destruction of nature. 454 00:38:31,350 --> 00:38:35,190 But the conception of nature as having 455 00:38:35,190 --> 00:38:44,870 more ecological consequences remained late. 456 00:38:44,870 --> 00:38:50,145 Number five, universalisation of modernity. 457 00:38:53,060 --> 00:38:57,440 When asked to remember that the notion that the world could 458 00:38:57,440 --> 00:39:02,330 be one system was much more powerful at a time 459 00:39:02,330 --> 00:39:06,380 when CIAM was in its infancy. 460 00:39:06,380 --> 00:39:11,780 You remember that Woodrow Wilson in 1919 461 00:39:11,780 --> 00:39:15,740 went to the peace conference in Paris 462 00:39:15,740 --> 00:39:20,360 and was greeted by the largest crowds in the history of Paris 463 00:39:20,360 --> 00:39:24,660 still even larger than any event today. 464 00:39:24,660 --> 00:39:28,040 So hungry was the world for the most brutal-- 465 00:39:28,040 --> 00:39:33,120 after the most brutal war in probably in modern times, 466 00:39:33,120 --> 00:39:40,280 the 14-18 war, that the notion of a league of nations, 467 00:39:40,280 --> 00:39:43,865 agnosticism, Esperanto, a universal language. 468 00:39:49,230 --> 00:39:54,440 The problem of universal identity and culture-- 469 00:39:54,440 --> 00:39:57,695 the internationalization of style, politics, religion, 470 00:39:57,695 --> 00:39:58,195 language. 471 00:40:17,470 --> 00:40:20,890 Central to the idea of modernism at that time 472 00:40:20,890 --> 00:40:27,220 was if there was a formula which was correct, 473 00:40:27,220 --> 00:40:32,350 you remember Corbusier talking about his Algiers plan 474 00:40:32,350 --> 00:40:37,480 as denouncing the public for not accepting what he thought 475 00:40:37,480 --> 00:40:39,910 was correct. 476 00:40:39,910 --> 00:40:42,880 But when a plan is correct, an item is correct, 477 00:40:42,880 --> 00:40:45,220 it must have universal significance. 478 00:40:47,920 --> 00:40:52,090 This is before the internet, before many 479 00:40:52,090 --> 00:40:54,220 of the avenues of internationalism 480 00:40:54,220 --> 00:40:55,930 that we now have. 481 00:40:55,930 --> 00:41:03,250 And yet, if anything, the opposite is true. 482 00:41:03,250 --> 00:41:07,900 Local identity is revered more strongly today than-- 483 00:41:11,810 --> 00:41:13,040 how could there not be? 484 00:41:13,040 --> 00:41:14,960 There wasn't. 485 00:41:14,960 --> 00:41:17,280 CIAM never spoke about poverty. 486 00:41:17,280 --> 00:41:21,260 It spoke about the poor condition of housing 487 00:41:21,260 --> 00:41:25,910 but never examined the issue of resource distribution 488 00:41:25,910 --> 00:41:27,740 in the world. 489 00:41:27,740 --> 00:41:33,770 It took from 1950, which was virtually the end of CIAM, 490 00:41:33,770 --> 00:41:38,240 for the first book to appear on the third world city-- 491 00:41:38,240 --> 00:41:41,180 Charlie Abrams's book, Man's Struggle 492 00:41:41,180 --> 00:41:44,810 for Shelter in an Urbanizing World 493 00:41:44,810 --> 00:41:51,590 using a notion of universalism which 494 00:41:51,590 --> 00:41:56,510 was very parallel to the conditions that were operating 495 00:41:56,510 --> 00:41:57,970 in Europe and America. 496 00:42:05,250 --> 00:42:08,730 The new client-- number six. 497 00:42:19,130 --> 00:42:20,360 The new corporations. 498 00:42:24,810 --> 00:42:35,100 Corbusier referred to a parallel between governments 499 00:42:35,100 --> 00:42:36,300 and corporations. 500 00:42:40,080 --> 00:42:43,890 His position, like Henry Ford, held 501 00:42:43,890 --> 00:42:49,520 that because the code of mass production was natural. 502 00:42:49,520 --> 00:42:52,120 What is natural about mass production? 503 00:42:55,010 --> 00:42:57,360 It could be and was, of course, applied 504 00:42:57,360 --> 00:42:59,990 under any political regime. 505 00:42:59,990 --> 00:43:03,450 Hence, for Corbusier, it was above politics. 506 00:43:03,450 --> 00:43:09,320 You will recall that I claimed that Corbusier 507 00:43:09,320 --> 00:43:15,950 in his various plans associated him with different but often 508 00:43:15,950 --> 00:43:20,930 highly conflicted political systems 509 00:43:20,930 --> 00:43:24,410 even to the extent of asking Mussolini for help 510 00:43:24,410 --> 00:43:28,325 in order to get his Algiers plan put into place. 511 00:43:37,550 --> 00:43:42,490 This was a world in which public authorities were 512 00:43:42,490 --> 00:43:44,950 developing their own strength-- 513 00:43:49,720 --> 00:43:53,650 new kinds of ideas of bylaws, codes, standards. 514 00:43:57,940 --> 00:44:03,890 The same time that these were being developed, 515 00:44:03,890 --> 00:44:08,150 the modern urbanists had a few other 516 00:44:08,150 --> 00:44:13,280 [? contradicted ?] ideas to whether-- 517 00:44:13,280 --> 00:44:18,830 many of them were influenced by what was happening in Russia 518 00:44:18,830 --> 00:44:21,980 and believed that the universality of the state 519 00:44:21,980 --> 00:44:30,500 was a modern phenomenon which would detect for the first time 520 00:44:30,500 --> 00:44:34,850 the quote natural law of distinction 521 00:44:34,850 --> 00:44:38,790 between poor and rich. 522 00:44:38,790 --> 00:44:43,980 Marx talks about the lack of a natural law, which 523 00:44:43,980 --> 00:44:48,450 suggests that some people should have resources and others not. 524 00:44:54,080 --> 00:44:58,230 There was an ambiguity about the role of the state. 525 00:44:58,230 --> 00:45:04,110 Corbusier made no bones about appealing to Mussolini 526 00:45:04,110 --> 00:45:07,890 as head of a fascist state. 527 00:45:07,890 --> 00:45:10,710 He made no bones about in his appeals 528 00:45:10,710 --> 00:45:18,360 to Moscow when invited to do a revised plan in Moscow 529 00:45:18,360 --> 00:45:25,350 to the politics of the situation as Henry Ford built forts 530 00:45:25,350 --> 00:45:32,430 and tractors in Russia, built Ford automobile 531 00:45:32,430 --> 00:45:36,390 structures in Russia, and had no notion 532 00:45:36,390 --> 00:45:44,090 that the politics of Russia was inimical 533 00:45:44,090 --> 00:45:50,030 to his own political positions. 534 00:45:50,030 --> 00:45:57,580 The finite program, the fundamental proposition 535 00:45:57,580 --> 00:46:01,870 about the master plan which was a picture 536 00:46:01,870 --> 00:46:04,270 with no change, no adjustment. 537 00:46:11,750 --> 00:46:14,450 The fundamental event of the modern age 538 00:46:14,450 --> 00:46:18,020 is the conquest of the world as picture. 539 00:46:18,020 --> 00:46:20,900 The word picture or build now means 540 00:46:20,900 --> 00:46:24,320 the structured image that is the creation of man's 541 00:46:24,320 --> 00:46:28,340 producing which man represents-- 542 00:46:28,340 --> 00:46:31,580 which represents and sets before. 543 00:46:31,580 --> 00:46:34,760 In such, producing man contains for the position 544 00:46:34,760 --> 00:46:37,430 which he can be that particularly [? yard ?] so 545 00:46:37,430 --> 00:46:40,130 on and so on and so on. 546 00:46:40,130 --> 00:46:41,990 This is from Heidegger-- 547 00:46:41,990 --> 00:46:47,840 the notion that somehow the world is best conceived 548 00:46:47,840 --> 00:46:50,780 as a complete picture. 549 00:46:50,780 --> 00:46:53,570 Urbanism according to Camillo Sitte 550 00:46:53,570 --> 00:47:00,200 is a set of truncated visions and visual experiences 551 00:47:00,200 --> 00:47:03,380 of the world. 552 00:47:03,380 --> 00:47:10,850 Modernism implies as a struggle with that image. 553 00:47:10,850 --> 00:47:14,480 There's a question as to whether that image is 554 00:47:14,480 --> 00:47:17,920 appropriate for modernism. 555 00:47:17,920 --> 00:47:26,330 [? After ?] Wagner claims, and so do the modern composers, 556 00:47:26,330 --> 00:47:33,860 that music is not noise, the world of urban experience, 557 00:47:33,860 --> 00:47:40,220 to be conditioned by limited structures but by continuity. 558 00:47:40,220 --> 00:47:43,640 Music concrete is really not broken 559 00:47:43,640 --> 00:47:47,300 up into beginning into fours movement 560 00:47:47,300 --> 00:47:49,820 as the classical symphony is. 561 00:47:49,820 --> 00:47:54,350 These are Alban Berg's music and Schoenberg's music. 562 00:47:54,350 --> 00:48:01,280 There's much more of an attempt to use tonal structures which 563 00:48:01,280 --> 00:48:09,090 are not located in time according to precepts 564 00:48:09,090 --> 00:48:14,640 but are flowing and free and can be experienced with difficulty. 565 00:48:17,150 --> 00:48:21,260 Jazz has gone through the same program-- 566 00:48:21,260 --> 00:48:26,930 Charlie Parker's great playing in the 1950s. 567 00:48:26,930 --> 00:48:28,100 I think he died. 568 00:48:28,100 --> 00:48:31,390 When did Parker die? 569 00:48:31,390 --> 00:48:38,480 Has the same classical quality which then gets 570 00:48:38,480 --> 00:48:41,780 lost with Cecil Taylor and others 571 00:48:41,780 --> 00:48:46,880 as free music becomes more possible. 572 00:48:46,880 --> 00:48:54,200 For the earlier modernists, they were on the edge of this 573 00:48:54,200 --> 00:48:56,270 trying to understand this freedom 574 00:48:56,270 --> 00:49:05,080 but trying still to stick to control aspects of planning 575 00:49:05,080 --> 00:49:06,490 in the finite program. 576 00:49:09,270 --> 00:49:12,510 Number nine, the self-image of the architect. 577 00:49:16,398 --> 00:49:18,540 Oh heavens. 578 00:49:18,540 --> 00:49:19,665 This is a long story. 579 00:49:23,530 --> 00:49:25,780 The sanctity of the creative object, 580 00:49:25,780 --> 00:49:30,130 the separation of high and popular realms, 581 00:49:30,130 --> 00:49:32,980 the value of silence and obscurity in art. 582 00:49:35,650 --> 00:49:38,800 Number 10, the spatial [? photo ?] [? cavity, ?] 583 00:49:38,800 --> 00:49:45,940 spatial isolation, separation of uses, 584 00:49:45,940 --> 00:49:48,140 automobiles and pedestrians. 585 00:49:53,160 --> 00:49:56,800 I mean, when Christopher Alexander wrote the city is not 586 00:49:56,800 --> 00:50:00,380 a tree and argued that the city is much more like a ladder 587 00:50:00,380 --> 00:50:05,020 system, he was debunking a popular modern conception. 588 00:50:08,760 --> 00:50:12,240 Gropius goes on about, and CIAM as well, 589 00:50:12,240 --> 00:50:17,220 about the need for a core. 590 00:50:17,220 --> 00:50:20,670 A core is a place where everybody comes together 591 00:50:20,670 --> 00:50:23,250 voluntarily. 592 00:50:23,250 --> 00:50:28,740 The single center of a city is conceived of as the only way 593 00:50:28,740 --> 00:50:30,110 in which that can happen. 594 00:50:32,630 --> 00:50:35,780 Gropius goes on and on about the core. 595 00:50:35,780 --> 00:50:41,390 CIAM, in one of its conferences, also goes on about the core. 596 00:50:44,860 --> 00:50:47,170 Is a multicore city not feasible? 597 00:50:50,390 --> 00:50:55,340 Is Toronto or Los Angeles-- 598 00:50:55,340 --> 00:50:59,080 are they not modern cities? 599 00:50:59,080 --> 00:51:11,570 The recreation of the core implies 600 00:51:11,570 --> 00:51:16,220 a kind of clarity of form, the absence of multiplicity 601 00:51:16,220 --> 00:51:21,630 and conflict, the lack of diversity, 602 00:51:21,630 --> 00:51:30,060 the benignness of open space, the eradication 603 00:51:30,060 --> 00:51:32,940 of distinctions between public and private space. 604 00:51:36,600 --> 00:51:41,505 This is what Corbusier says about the traditional street. 605 00:51:45,210 --> 00:51:48,110 A street is a roadway that is usually 606 00:51:48,110 --> 00:51:52,250 bordered by pavements narrow or wide as the case may be. 607 00:51:52,250 --> 00:51:56,150 The sky is a remote hub far, far above it. 608 00:51:56,150 --> 00:51:59,060 The street is no more than a change of deep cliff 609 00:51:59,060 --> 00:52:00,980 to narrow passage. 610 00:52:00,980 --> 00:52:03,720 Our hearts are always oppressed by the constriction 611 00:52:03,720 --> 00:52:05,810 of its enclosing walls. 612 00:52:05,810 --> 00:52:07,520 The street weighs us out. 613 00:52:07,520 --> 00:52:09,080 And when all is said and done, we 614 00:52:09,080 --> 00:52:12,810 have to admit it disgusts us. 615 00:52:12,810 --> 00:52:14,400 Then why does it still exist? 616 00:52:19,290 --> 00:52:22,580 How do you explain the preoccupation 617 00:52:22,580 --> 00:52:28,040 with the street as one of the urbanistic slogans 618 00:52:28,040 --> 00:52:29,240 of cultural urbanism? 619 00:52:37,950 --> 00:52:40,520 AUDIENCE: That kind of is the street 620 00:52:40,520 --> 00:52:48,270 is the main perception of urbanistic experience, 621 00:52:48,270 --> 00:52:50,760 because when you're not on the street, you're either in-- 622 00:52:50,760 --> 00:52:52,885 you know, when you're not in the street of a plaza, 623 00:52:52,885 --> 00:52:54,322 then you're in a private space. 624 00:52:54,322 --> 00:52:55,530 JULIAN BEINART: I understand. 625 00:52:55,530 --> 00:52:58,500 But these people that we're talking 626 00:52:58,500 --> 00:53:00,720 about, all of these people sitting 627 00:53:00,720 --> 00:53:05,520 around these conferences, CIAM, weren't fooled. 628 00:53:05,520 --> 00:53:08,650 They were some of the smartest people of their time. 629 00:53:08,650 --> 00:53:14,220 They had adequate sensibility about the street. 630 00:53:14,220 --> 00:53:20,100 Why does [INAUDIBLE],, one of the sub-group working groups 631 00:53:20,100 --> 00:53:29,910 of CIAM, propose the abolition of the street 632 00:53:29,910 --> 00:53:35,410 in [? sardars ?] plan and the creation of the Corbusier 633 00:53:35,410 --> 00:53:39,690 [INAUDIBLE] system of an elevated highway 634 00:53:39,690 --> 00:53:45,120 5 meters up in the sky and the flat plane of the city 635 00:53:45,120 --> 00:53:49,050 being a continuous green space with no distinction 636 00:53:49,050 --> 00:53:52,780 between private and public space? 637 00:53:52,780 --> 00:53:56,580 It's a radical change. 638 00:53:56,580 --> 00:53:59,130 Corbusier wrote a lot of nonsense 639 00:53:59,130 --> 00:54:02,770 as well as being a great architect. 640 00:54:02,770 --> 00:54:07,800 So one must deny a lot of these words as rubbish. 641 00:54:10,720 --> 00:54:14,560 But it is remarkable that so many people 642 00:54:14,560 --> 00:54:21,700 could accept that modernism laid speed for automobiles, 643 00:54:21,700 --> 00:54:29,020 untrammelled conflict with automobile, the street 644 00:54:29,020 --> 00:54:34,280 as being an outmoded spatial item. 645 00:54:34,280 --> 00:54:37,670 If you deny history, you must easily 646 00:54:37,670 --> 00:54:40,580 deny its artifacts as well. 647 00:54:40,580 --> 00:54:44,420 And its artifacts are cranky, difficult 648 00:54:44,420 --> 00:54:50,165 to negotiate, non-rectangular urban systems. 649 00:54:53,650 --> 00:54:57,040 It's difficult to understand, but this 650 00:54:57,040 --> 00:55:06,700 is where your heritage starts in modernism-- 651 00:55:06,700 --> 00:55:14,920 the complete appropriation of an industrial phenotype, 652 00:55:14,920 --> 00:55:19,600 the idea that the world could be made more equal, more 653 00:55:19,600 --> 00:55:24,610 efficient, more advanced through science 654 00:55:24,610 --> 00:55:30,460 if only it took up the same techniques that 655 00:55:30,460 --> 00:55:31,870 produced automobiles. 656 00:55:35,190 --> 00:55:40,050 We live in a completely different time. 657 00:55:40,050 --> 00:55:45,630 That's why I go back to start with this dialogue 658 00:55:45,630 --> 00:55:49,725 about the advent of modern urbanism. 659 00:55:55,930 --> 00:55:58,990 My real estate friends say it's impossible to sell 660 00:55:58,990 --> 00:56:00,640 a modern house in Cambridge. 661 00:56:05,030 --> 00:56:10,250 A modern house is rated way below a Victorian house which 662 00:56:10,250 --> 00:56:13,820 has decorative systems which are driven out of [? letters ?] 663 00:56:13,820 --> 00:56:14,690 [? from ?] the bin. 664 00:56:20,630 --> 00:56:28,620 Most interesting to me is the cataloging of culture. 665 00:56:28,620 --> 00:56:31,650 So that we understand where we are, 666 00:56:31,650 --> 00:56:36,720 who could have predicted that the quaintness 667 00:56:36,720 --> 00:56:43,500 and reconservatism of the new urbanism 668 00:56:43,500 --> 00:56:49,110 would have such an incredible market in relation 669 00:56:49,110 --> 00:56:52,220 to these advents of modernism? 670 00:56:52,220 --> 00:56:58,040 It extends almost in opposition to every aspect 671 00:56:58,040 --> 00:57:01,338 of modern urbanism that I can imagine. 672 00:57:04,550 --> 00:57:10,690 It's attempted historicism amongst others. 673 00:57:17,690 --> 00:57:18,190 OK. 674 00:57:21,929 --> 00:57:26,127 Let's leave Corbusier and this stuff for a moment. 675 00:57:29,870 --> 00:57:36,125 Umberto Eco is a very smart philosopher. 676 00:57:36,125 --> 00:57:39,920 He says, "I believe the city is a kind of organism which 677 00:57:39,920 --> 00:57:44,660 forms haggardly by itself and, at a certain point, 678 00:57:44,660 --> 00:57:48,280 acquires certain lines of tendencies. 679 00:57:48,280 --> 00:57:50,620 The architect is the one who can interpret 680 00:57:50,620 --> 00:57:54,790 these lines of tendencies to correct the city to reshape it 681 00:57:54,790 --> 00:57:56,170 but never globally." 682 00:57:59,100 --> 00:58:00,980 This is a post-modern view. 683 00:58:07,940 --> 00:58:10,370 "I would conclude, therefore, that my view 684 00:58:10,370 --> 00:58:12,410 of the epistemology of architects 685 00:58:12,410 --> 00:58:15,260 is the notion of adjustment and conjecture." 686 00:58:19,350 --> 00:58:21,930 The apostle of postmodern urbanism, 687 00:58:21,930 --> 00:58:24,630 not post-modern in the architectural sense 688 00:58:24,630 --> 00:58:30,570 but in the reconstruction of modernism, 689 00:58:30,570 --> 00:58:32,940 you can read Koolhaas. 690 00:58:32,940 --> 00:58:39,350 And we can leave this story with "Modernism's 691 00:58:39,350 --> 00:58:42,320 alchemistic promise to transform quantity 692 00:58:42,320 --> 00:58:45,200 into quality through abstraction and repetition 693 00:58:45,200 --> 00:58:50,660 has been a failure, a hoax, magic that didn't work. 694 00:58:50,660 --> 00:58:54,770 Its idea's aesthetic strategies are finished. 695 00:58:54,770 --> 00:58:57,680 Together, all attempts to make a new beginning have only 696 00:58:57,680 --> 00:59:02,720 discredited the idea of a new beginning. 697 00:59:02,720 --> 00:59:05,190 If there is to be a new urbanism, 698 00:59:05,190 --> 00:59:07,880 it will not be based on the twin fantasies 699 00:59:07,880 --> 00:59:10,710 of order and omnipotence. 700 00:59:10,710 --> 00:59:14,750 It will be the staging of uncertainty. 701 00:59:14,750 --> 00:59:19,100 It will no longer aim for stable configurations 702 00:59:19,100 --> 00:59:21,770 that for the creation of enabling fields that 703 00:59:21,770 --> 00:59:25,520 accommodate processes that refuse to be crystallized 704 00:59:25,520 --> 00:59:27,870 into definitive form. 705 00:59:27,870 --> 00:59:33,260 It will no longer be about meticulous definition, 706 00:59:33,260 --> 00:59:36,590 the imposition of limits, but about expanding 707 00:59:36,590 --> 00:59:40,760 the notions denying boundaries not about separating 708 00:59:40,760 --> 00:59:44,720 and identifying entities but about discovering 709 00:59:44,720 --> 00:59:47,390 unnamable hybrids. 710 00:59:47,390 --> 00:59:50,660 It will no longer be obsessed with the city 711 00:59:50,660 --> 00:59:53,370 but with the manipulation of infrastructure 712 00:59:53,370 --> 00:59:58,100 for endless intensification and diversification, shortcuts 713 00:59:58,100 --> 01:00:01,070 and distribution, the reinvention 714 01:00:01,070 --> 01:00:04,460 of psychological space." 715 01:00:04,460 --> 01:00:09,060 And one last sentence from this great gentleman. 716 01:00:09,060 --> 01:00:12,690 "How to explain the paradox that urbanism as a profession 717 01:00:12,690 --> 01:00:15,000 has disappeared at the moment when 718 01:00:15,000 --> 01:00:17,100 urbanization is everywhere?" 719 01:00:21,810 --> 01:00:23,990 Brings us to the current condition. 720 01:00:32,190 --> 01:00:33,600 To the extent that-- 721 01:00:39,560 --> 01:00:42,080 let's perhaps look at. 722 01:00:46,950 --> 01:00:50,520 However, perhaps you haven't got time. 723 01:00:50,520 --> 01:00:52,105 We need to look at a few images. 724 01:01:07,050 --> 01:01:09,765 Architectural history is never taught, 725 01:01:09,765 --> 01:01:14,950 or history is never taught about the present, 726 01:01:14,950 --> 01:01:18,910 because there isn't enough evidence come 727 01:01:18,910 --> 01:01:20,610 to a conclusion about it. 728 01:01:24,400 --> 01:01:33,510 Koolhaas is as vigorous a use of language as Le Corbusier. 729 01:01:33,510 --> 01:01:36,220 Le Corbusier wrote hundreds of thousands 730 01:01:36,220 --> 01:01:39,010 of words, published everything he could, 731 01:01:39,010 --> 01:01:43,210 documented his work in books that are now very valuable. 732 01:01:45,960 --> 01:01:49,600 Koolhaas is trying to do the same trying 733 01:01:49,600 --> 01:01:55,390 to articulate a universal attitude when universalism 734 01:01:55,390 --> 01:02:01,980 is relatively absent. 735 01:02:01,980 --> 01:02:07,975 We cannot find an international agreement about climate change. 736 01:02:13,430 --> 01:02:16,255 So international agreements are-- 737 01:02:18,870 --> 01:02:27,990 but what is correct about Koolhaas' proposition 738 01:02:27,990 --> 01:02:33,480 that modern urbanism is dead? 739 01:02:33,480 --> 01:02:36,960 All of these propositions that I put forward 740 01:02:36,960 --> 01:02:45,080 are not to be taken seriously in the long run. 741 01:02:45,080 --> 01:02:48,020 What are we left with? 742 01:02:48,020 --> 01:02:51,406 What have we developed on our own? 743 01:02:51,406 --> 01:02:55,040 I'll try to articulate as best I can some of these 744 01:02:55,040 --> 01:02:57,620 in the next few classes. 745 01:02:57,620 --> 01:03:02,450 The anti-- the development. 746 01:03:02,450 --> 01:03:09,860 The urbanistic idea develop after 1960 747 01:03:09,860 --> 01:03:15,170 when CIAM fell apart at Dubrovnik and Otterlo-- 748 01:03:15,170 --> 01:03:22,010 at the conferences at Dubrovnik and Otterlo in 1960. 749 01:03:22,010 --> 01:03:26,780 It was replaced by a group of young European architects 750 01:03:26,780 --> 01:03:33,380 at the 10th congress of CIAM, who called themselves Team 10. 751 01:03:33,380 --> 01:03:35,420 We look at their preoccupations. 752 01:03:35,420 --> 01:03:38,600 We look at the rationalist preoccupations 753 01:03:38,600 --> 01:03:43,640 of Leon Krier and Aldo Rossi and people of this kind 754 01:03:43,640 --> 01:03:49,610 to see whether there's any generation of accumulated 755 01:03:49,610 --> 01:03:51,885 wisdom about urbanism. 756 01:03:56,882 --> 01:04:00,090 Is there any permanence in our preoccupation 757 01:04:00,090 --> 01:04:03,330 with traditional streets? 758 01:04:10,120 --> 01:04:15,190 You're interested, Michael, in preservation theory. 759 01:04:19,200 --> 01:04:22,690 Are we at the height of a preservation phenomenon? 760 01:04:25,540 --> 01:04:29,350 How is it that Jane Jacobs in fighting 761 01:04:29,350 --> 01:04:37,010 Robert Moses around the future about housing 762 01:04:37,010 --> 01:04:43,030 in New York, which Moses wished to dispatch and replace 763 01:04:43,030 --> 01:04:45,910 with modern apartment blocks? 764 01:04:45,910 --> 01:04:48,940 We wouldn't allow that to happen now. 765 01:04:48,940 --> 01:04:51,160 We wouldn't have allowed the west end 766 01:04:51,160 --> 01:04:55,150 to be removed through urban renewal. 767 01:04:55,150 --> 01:04:57,760 Why? 768 01:04:57,760 --> 01:05:00,150 AUDIENCE: There's a fairly new-- 769 01:05:00,150 --> 01:05:07,096 the value of preservation is a fairly recent phenomenon. 770 01:05:07,096 --> 01:05:10,350 For many centuries, cities were just-- 771 01:05:10,350 --> 01:05:11,550 they were very. 772 01:05:11,550 --> 01:05:13,380 They destroyed parts of the city in order 773 01:05:13,380 --> 01:05:15,948 to build something new on top of it. 774 01:05:15,948 --> 01:05:18,240 AUDIENCE: I think the big difference between modern era 775 01:05:18,240 --> 01:05:20,010 is scale. 776 01:05:20,010 --> 01:05:22,890 You know, I mean, you can't-- 777 01:05:22,890 --> 01:05:24,810 it's not just destroying a building. 778 01:05:24,810 --> 01:05:27,030 It's wiping out whole neighborhoods 779 01:05:27,030 --> 01:05:30,050 and building things that function on a different scale. 780 01:05:30,050 --> 01:05:30,810 AUDIENCE: Yeah. 781 01:05:30,810 --> 01:05:32,643 AUDIENCE: That's the big change between what 782 01:05:32,643 --> 01:05:33,840 had happened before. 783 01:05:33,840 --> 01:05:37,330 AUDIENCE: I understand the function of scale. 784 01:05:37,330 --> 01:05:41,740 But the notion between an entity having the capability 785 01:05:41,740 --> 01:05:46,090 of destroying that value whether it's small or large 786 01:05:46,090 --> 01:05:49,000 comes from the appreciation of the value within society, 787 01:05:49,000 --> 01:05:50,770 because society ultimately allows 788 01:05:50,770 --> 01:05:55,500 for that to happen regardless of the scale. 789 01:05:55,500 --> 01:06:01,700 When you go big, it's just can be more scandalous if you 790 01:06:01,700 --> 01:06:02,320 want it to. 791 01:06:02,320 --> 01:06:05,020 AUDIENCE: But it's not just the scale of the project. 792 01:06:05,020 --> 01:06:10,400 It's the scale of how the resulting urbanism is used. 793 01:06:10,400 --> 01:06:11,050 AUDIENCE: Yeah. 794 01:06:11,050 --> 01:06:13,900 I mean, and that's what-- 795 01:06:13,900 --> 01:06:18,144 the modernists aren't thinking on a human scale. 796 01:06:18,144 --> 01:06:19,640 [INAUDIBLE] [? auto ?] scale. 797 01:06:19,640 --> 01:06:20,265 AUDIENCE: Yeah. 798 01:06:20,265 --> 01:06:22,267 AUDIENCE: And so that changes the function. 799 01:06:22,267 --> 01:06:22,850 AUDIENCE: Yes. 800 01:06:22,850 --> 01:06:23,710 I agree with that. 801 01:06:27,030 --> 01:06:28,980 JULIAN BEINART: It's still perplexing, 802 01:06:28,980 --> 01:06:32,850 as a young modernist myself, to be 803 01:06:32,850 --> 01:06:39,390 living in a culture which has so many dissonances with what 804 01:06:39,390 --> 01:06:43,560 I was taught to believe in. 805 01:06:43,560 --> 01:06:50,910 Either one lives too long, which is a problem, 806 01:06:50,910 --> 01:06:55,470 or one has to try to make some sense. 807 01:06:55,470 --> 01:07:02,610 The new urbanism couldn't have existed 808 01:07:02,610 --> 01:07:05,070 in the orthodoxy of CIAM. 809 01:07:05,070 --> 01:07:09,450 First of all, they were all mainly Europeans 810 01:07:09,450 --> 01:07:12,030 and didn't understand the nostalgia 811 01:07:12,030 --> 01:07:18,810 for the small community of the American suburban. 812 01:07:18,810 --> 01:07:23,850 All the new urbanism has done is done cosmetically touching 813 01:07:23,850 --> 01:07:26,970 of the phase of suburbia. 814 01:07:26,970 --> 01:07:31,080 It hasn't been able to deal with any of the fundamental problems 815 01:07:31,080 --> 01:07:33,120 of American urbanism-- 816 01:07:33,120 --> 01:07:43,620 race, numbers, social equity, and above all the automobile. 817 01:07:43,620 --> 01:07:50,595 The densities, which the new urbanists continue to proclaim, 818 01:07:50,595 --> 01:07:53,730 are automobile densities. 819 01:07:53,730 --> 01:07:58,270 They cannot justify public transportation. 820 01:07:58,270 --> 01:08:01,920 So the dilemma as to what the notion of density 821 01:08:01,920 --> 01:08:04,470 is in the contemporary American city 822 01:08:04,470 --> 01:08:08,040 is fundamentally around a number of properties, 823 01:08:08,040 --> 01:08:13,350 which the new urbanist just decline to deal with. 824 01:08:13,350 --> 01:08:15,270 Let's look at some of these images. 825 01:08:15,270 --> 01:08:17,660 They're only a few. 826 01:08:17,660 --> 01:08:21,330 A typical modernist proposition. 827 01:08:21,330 --> 01:08:25,109 First of all, the building is an autonomous object. 828 01:08:25,109 --> 01:08:26,910 It stands by itself. 829 01:08:26,910 --> 01:08:32,819 It is not seen as related to anything else but circulation. 830 01:08:32,819 --> 01:08:41,609 Circulation consists of a high-speed system which feeds 831 01:08:41,609 --> 01:08:49,890 with a major intersection down to a local road-- 832 01:08:49,890 --> 01:08:52,590 needs an open space in front of this building, which 833 01:08:52,590 --> 01:08:55,470 is unaccounted for. 834 01:08:55,470 --> 01:09:00,359 Why do you need an open space in front of that building? 835 01:09:00,359 --> 01:09:03,689 There's an attempt to access pedestrians 836 01:09:03,689 --> 01:09:07,020 along these white stripes, which presumably 837 01:09:07,020 --> 01:09:08,399 are pedestrian routes. 838 01:09:14,850 --> 01:09:22,069 There's another highway intersection a few kilometers, 839 01:09:22,069 --> 01:09:30,770 or maybe not even that, much too close together. 840 01:09:30,770 --> 01:09:36,649 It is naivete about the design of these systems 841 01:09:36,649 --> 01:09:41,300 where one can forgive people for that. 842 01:09:41,300 --> 01:09:44,120 I've already discussed Gropius' notion 843 01:09:44,120 --> 01:09:54,320 that buildings separated at a certain distance given 844 01:09:54,320 --> 01:09:56,030 their height. 845 01:09:56,030 --> 01:09:59,075 It needs to be studied next. 846 01:10:03,800 --> 01:10:05,690 The preoccupation with the type. 847 01:10:09,260 --> 01:10:14,390 This is an interesting question. 848 01:10:14,390 --> 01:10:20,600 [? Jonah ?] [? Braken ?] feels that the type is a necessary 849 01:10:20,600 --> 01:10:25,010 cultural phenomenon-- that we need to study it in order that 850 01:10:25,010 --> 01:10:31,850 we can maintain continuity in our culture. 851 01:10:31,850 --> 01:10:36,200 Here, type is studied as a scientific system 852 01:10:36,200 --> 01:10:40,490 to show that you can create housing 853 01:10:40,490 --> 01:10:43,190 for large numbers of people once you 854 01:10:43,190 --> 01:10:52,980 identify the essential spatial formal DNA of the plan. 855 01:10:52,980 --> 01:10:55,030 We know this one-- 856 01:10:55,030 --> 01:11:01,040 the ridiculous assumptions denying the existence 857 01:11:01,040 --> 01:11:03,680 of [? Third ?] [? Street, ?] which is one 858 01:11:03,680 --> 01:11:07,220 of the remarkable-- 859 01:11:07,220 --> 01:11:12,710 these successful pieces of urbanism, late 19th century 860 01:11:12,710 --> 01:11:16,280 urbanism, and replacing it with a staggeringly 861 01:11:16,280 --> 01:11:20,500 stupid proposition of Corbusier's 862 01:11:20,500 --> 01:11:23,115 [INAUDIBLE] or teeth system. 863 01:11:23,115 --> 01:11:23,615 Next. 864 01:11:29,450 --> 01:11:33,930 Just a few slides of numbers. 865 01:11:33,930 --> 01:11:40,550 They are in Italy, and I put them in a sequence. 866 01:11:40,550 --> 01:11:45,560 Traditional poor urban housing would be for the rich 867 01:11:45,560 --> 01:11:48,080 as well in Milan on the left. 868 01:11:48,080 --> 01:11:55,300 The first attempt in [INAUDIBLE] to build 869 01:11:55,300 --> 01:11:59,830 state-supported public housing. 870 01:11:59,830 --> 01:12:01,138 Walk-ups. Next. 871 01:12:09,550 --> 01:12:17,920 [INAUDIBLE] walk-ups stretching four floors as much as you can 872 01:12:17,920 --> 01:12:23,660 and giving a modern facade to the apparatus. 873 01:12:23,660 --> 01:12:30,190 The [INAUDIBLE] project by Giovanni Astengo showing 874 01:12:30,190 --> 01:12:33,070 the layout of these blocks in relation 875 01:12:33,070 --> 01:12:43,990 to an uncultivated, open space. 876 01:12:43,990 --> 01:12:47,500 The open space is a trivial remainder of the design. 877 01:12:50,255 --> 01:12:50,755 next. 878 01:12:54,310 --> 01:13:00,080 Antonio [? Milano ?] now building 879 01:13:00,080 --> 01:13:04,100 buildings with elevators close together in an attempt 880 01:13:04,100 --> 01:13:07,010 to create density, but the density 881 01:13:07,010 --> 01:13:14,400 is still remarkably absent of producing a city. 882 01:13:14,400 --> 01:13:14,900 Next. 883 01:13:17,960 --> 01:13:24,020 And finally the attempt to deal with numbers by extending 884 01:13:24,020 --> 01:13:26,030 the prototype endlessly. 885 01:13:29,980 --> 01:13:31,580 This is one project. 886 01:13:31,580 --> 01:13:35,000 And I think it's around on the left. 887 01:13:35,000 --> 01:13:36,940 And I think it's Genoa on the right. 888 01:13:36,940 --> 01:13:37,750 I'm not sure. 889 01:13:41,410 --> 01:13:44,860 Koolhaas is correct in looking at this and saying, 890 01:13:44,860 --> 01:13:50,320 what have we learned about the problem of number? 891 01:13:50,320 --> 01:13:52,260 Very little.