1 00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:02,520 The following content is provided under a Creative 2 00:00:02,520 --> 00:00:03,970 Commons license. 3 00:00:03,970 --> 00:00:06,360 Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare 4 00:00:06,360 --> 00:00:10,660 continue to offer high-quality educational resources for free. 5 00:00:10,660 --> 00:00:13,350 To make a donation or view additional materials 6 00:00:13,350 --> 00:00:17,190 from hundreds of MIT courses, visit MIT OpenCourseWare 7 00:00:17,190 --> 00:00:18,320 at ocw.mit.edu. 8 00:00:26,895 --> 00:00:30,540 JULIAN BEINART: To describe the spatial history of London 9 00:00:30,540 --> 00:00:37,530 in 45 minutes is impossible. 10 00:00:37,530 --> 00:00:44,130 London has to be seen in the light of a number of issues. 11 00:00:44,130 --> 00:00:46,680 It's the greatest open city in history. 12 00:00:51,750 --> 00:00:55,980 I'm going to be interested in the spatial development 13 00:00:55,980 --> 00:01:04,560 of London from about 1750 onwards, the period which 14 00:01:04,560 --> 00:01:09,150 we have demarcated as being the advent of modernism. 15 00:01:17,495 --> 00:01:17,995 Sit down. 16 00:01:30,460 --> 00:01:36,760 London was first occupied by the Romans in 43 AD. 17 00:01:36,760 --> 00:01:40,630 And they stayed in England until about 400 18 00:01:40,630 --> 00:01:45,900 AD, a long period of time. 19 00:01:45,900 --> 00:01:48,685 London never built great walls. 20 00:01:52,360 --> 00:01:57,160 As I said in a previous class, the walls in Europe 21 00:01:57,160 --> 00:02:07,240 are widest on the east and get distinctly less. 22 00:02:07,240 --> 00:02:10,030 Paris rebuilt the walls a number of times, as late 23 00:02:10,030 --> 00:02:11,350 as the 19th century. 24 00:02:11,350 --> 00:02:15,610 But the British, separated from continental Europe, 25 00:02:15,610 --> 00:02:21,550 never invested a great deal in protecting the city. 26 00:02:21,550 --> 00:02:26,560 The crossing of the River Thames was towards the northeast-- 27 00:02:26,560 --> 00:02:29,890 that is, towards what is now the city of London, 28 00:02:29,890 --> 00:02:34,315 the business and most protected original part of London. 29 00:02:38,350 --> 00:02:45,670 The period post [INAUDIBLE] can be characterized 30 00:02:45,670 --> 00:02:49,180 by the application of the British 31 00:02:49,180 --> 00:02:54,550 of a number of contested arenas of social life 32 00:02:54,550 --> 00:02:55,840 and economic life. 33 00:03:05,580 --> 00:03:09,660 Already in 1838, the Chartist movement 34 00:03:09,660 --> 00:03:14,820 agitated for the Democratic use of the vote. 35 00:03:14,820 --> 00:03:17,190 The first labor unions were starting 36 00:03:17,190 --> 00:03:21,360 to be originated in the early 19th century. 37 00:03:21,360 --> 00:03:29,840 Charged labor was put out of business. 38 00:03:29,840 --> 00:03:33,680 The origins of public housing-- 39 00:03:33,680 --> 00:03:38,180 the state never built housing for people 40 00:03:38,180 --> 00:03:44,310 except if there had to be housed under poverty conditions. 41 00:03:44,310 --> 00:03:52,460 Most of the cities in pre-English Europe 42 00:03:52,460 --> 00:03:59,330 relied on religious powers and charity to house people. 43 00:03:59,330 --> 00:04:03,950 There was no notion that the public had any responsibility 44 00:04:03,950 --> 00:04:06,510 for housing the population. 45 00:04:06,510 --> 00:04:10,760 So at least amongst the many innovations 46 00:04:10,760 --> 00:04:15,890 that this period endorses, one would 47 00:04:15,890 --> 00:04:20,180 include the major, major, major organization 48 00:04:20,180 --> 00:04:27,530 of the state towards environmental improvement, 49 00:04:27,530 --> 00:04:31,070 taking care of public sanitation, 50 00:04:31,070 --> 00:04:39,830 the origin of welfare, state health, building bylaws, 51 00:04:39,830 --> 00:04:44,390 the emergence of women's rights, the laws 52 00:04:44,390 --> 00:04:50,540 against racial discrimination, and the emergence 53 00:04:50,540 --> 00:04:51,860 of the first-- 54 00:04:51,860 --> 00:05:01,890 I would call the modern city-planning organization 55 00:05:01,890 --> 00:05:13,800 with London County Council, 1889 to 1965, the most dramatic 56 00:05:13,800 --> 00:05:19,620 state organization to organize the application 57 00:05:19,620 --> 00:05:24,990 of spatial and social principles. 58 00:05:28,576 --> 00:05:30,425 The London County Council-- 59 00:05:35,490 --> 00:05:38,790 one of the problems about city planning 60 00:05:38,790 --> 00:05:43,020 is that you need an organization internal to the state 61 00:05:43,020 --> 00:05:47,190 or to the city to maintain the quality of work. 62 00:05:47,190 --> 00:05:50,600 Outside consultants are OK. 63 00:05:50,600 --> 00:05:53,340 Unlike architecture, with outside consultants, 64 00:05:53,340 --> 00:05:56,160 you can build a building. 65 00:05:56,160 --> 00:05:58,620 City planning is a continuous process 66 00:05:58,620 --> 00:06:03,180 of adjustment, management of public wealth 67 00:06:03,180 --> 00:06:05,940 and private wealth. 68 00:06:05,940 --> 00:06:10,350 And one of the biggest problems of working 69 00:06:10,350 --> 00:06:14,820 in many parts of the world today, for me, 70 00:06:14,820 --> 00:06:21,300 is to adjust the level of work in relation 71 00:06:21,300 --> 00:06:25,860 to the level of the capacity of application. 72 00:06:25,860 --> 00:06:31,560 There's no point in using advanced levels of spatial 73 00:06:31,560 --> 00:06:36,870 control in a city which cannot maintain its application 74 00:06:36,870 --> 00:06:39,460 and adjustment. 75 00:06:39,460 --> 00:06:49,650 I'm just, at the moment, engaged with the city of Abu Dhabi, who 76 00:06:49,650 --> 00:06:54,930 wants some help making a new strategic plan. 77 00:06:54,930 --> 00:06:58,770 They want to do it without outside consultants. 78 00:06:58,770 --> 00:07:02,790 They want to do it through their own internal labor force. 79 00:07:02,790 --> 00:07:05,900 The real question is whether they're going to be able to. 80 00:07:05,900 --> 00:07:08,380 But that's an ongoing discussion, 81 00:07:08,380 --> 00:07:09,760 which I'm having with them. 82 00:07:14,460 --> 00:07:20,550 London had already established an enormous number 83 00:07:20,550 --> 00:07:25,320 of characteristics of a cultured and open city. 84 00:07:25,320 --> 00:07:30,285 Shakespeare bought a house in London in 1613. 85 00:07:30,285 --> 00:07:32,880 He paid for it through the profits 86 00:07:32,880 --> 00:07:37,800 he made on theater audiences in central London. 87 00:07:45,190 --> 00:07:47,770 John Locke, in 1685-- 88 00:07:47,770 --> 00:07:53,710 1689, perhaps-- published a paper 89 00:07:53,710 --> 00:07:58,300 arguing for the separation of church and state. 90 00:07:58,300 --> 00:08:02,230 It was really towards the end of the 17th century. 91 00:08:06,130 --> 00:08:11,530 London has maintained itself as an open city. 92 00:08:11,530 --> 00:08:16,900 2.6 million of the current population of London 93 00:08:16,900 --> 00:08:19,540 are foreign-born. 94 00:08:19,540 --> 00:08:24,970 That's about 30% of the population of London today 95 00:08:24,970 --> 00:08:26,530 are foreign-born. 96 00:08:26,530 --> 00:08:30,640 I think that's roughly equivalent to Los Angeles. 97 00:08:30,640 --> 00:08:33,970 I'm not sure about Los Angeles, but forgive me. 98 00:08:33,970 --> 00:08:36,400 I'm just guessing. 99 00:08:36,400 --> 00:08:39,960 I should know, but I don't know a great deal. 100 00:08:43,270 --> 00:08:50,860 I read from the New York Times, March the 4th, 2012, writing 101 00:08:50,860 --> 00:08:53,140 about London. 102 00:08:53,140 --> 00:08:55,270 Every month, some young bureaucrat 103 00:08:55,270 --> 00:08:57,460 in the Chinese State Administration 104 00:08:57,460 --> 00:09:02,920 of Foreign Exchange reaches out to a trader in London 105 00:09:02,920 --> 00:09:08,230 and buys or sells billions worth of US treasury bonds. 106 00:09:08,230 --> 00:09:12,850 London is the world's largest market for dollars. 107 00:09:12,850 --> 00:09:15,070 So if you think about all the money 108 00:09:15,070 --> 00:09:19,910 that's being paid by the Chinese government, 109 00:09:19,910 --> 00:09:22,280 it's paid to London. 110 00:09:22,280 --> 00:09:29,650 London has remained the central economic site 111 00:09:29,650 --> 00:09:32,050 for a great deal of the international world. 112 00:09:35,420 --> 00:09:38,780 We thought, perhaps, by looking at some 113 00:09:38,780 --> 00:09:52,630 of the spatial attributes from the two major disasters, 114 00:09:52,630 --> 00:09:58,540 the fire of 1666 and the plague epidemic of 1666-- 115 00:09:58,540 --> 00:10:07,270 no modern city has ever been struck by two major disasters 116 00:10:07,270 --> 00:10:11,830 so close to one another. 117 00:10:11,830 --> 00:10:14,320 The Fire of London was the greatest fire 118 00:10:14,320 --> 00:10:15,690 the world had ever seen. 119 00:10:18,360 --> 00:10:25,170 On the 1st of September, 1666, the wooden structures 120 00:10:25,170 --> 00:10:29,880 close to the river, to the docks, 121 00:10:29,880 --> 00:10:33,120 exactly the same as Chicago in the Chicago Fire 122 00:10:33,120 --> 00:10:34,230 200 years later-- 123 00:10:37,590 --> 00:10:40,380 the mayor was apparently unimpressed 124 00:10:40,380 --> 00:10:43,030 when first called to the scene. 125 00:10:43,030 --> 00:10:48,330 He expostulated, pish, a woman might piss this out. 126 00:10:48,330 --> 00:10:51,030 He woke up the next day to find half the world 127 00:10:51,030 --> 00:10:52,350 around him destroyed. 128 00:10:57,200 --> 00:11:01,220 The fire interested us less than the fact 129 00:11:01,220 --> 00:11:04,970 that five days after the flames had been controlled, 130 00:11:04,970 --> 00:11:07,070 a young professor of anatomy called 131 00:11:07,070 --> 00:11:11,760 Christopher Wren, not yet widely known as an architect, 132 00:11:11,760 --> 00:11:16,830 approached the king with a plan. 133 00:11:16,830 --> 00:11:21,170 The plan took no account whatever of the medieval street 134 00:11:21,170 --> 00:11:22,400 plan. 135 00:11:22,400 --> 00:11:24,920 He superimposed his grandiose vision 136 00:11:24,920 --> 00:11:28,370 of wide avenues radiating in straight lines 137 00:11:28,370 --> 00:11:29,390 from the Royal Exchange. 138 00:11:33,190 --> 00:11:36,340 On 13 September, Charles II, the king, 139 00:11:36,340 --> 00:11:40,120 issued a proclamation, assuring the city that, 140 00:11:40,120 --> 00:11:42,190 quote, "though every man must not 141 00:11:42,190 --> 00:11:45,340 be suffered to reap whatever--" oh, I 142 00:11:45,340 --> 00:11:47,980 don't want to read the quote. 143 00:11:47,980 --> 00:11:50,440 Essentially, Wren assumed that you 144 00:11:50,440 --> 00:11:56,290 could socialize land and change the form of a city 145 00:11:56,290 --> 00:12:00,130 by imposing a new spatial pattern on it. 146 00:12:00,130 --> 00:12:04,240 The king said no, in England, we respect 147 00:12:04,240 --> 00:12:06,640 the ownership of private property, 148 00:12:06,640 --> 00:12:12,820 even if it's of a small scale. 149 00:12:12,820 --> 00:12:15,580 And I will not endorse a plan which 150 00:12:15,580 --> 00:12:19,360 does not advocate the maintenance of the rights 151 00:12:19,360 --> 00:12:21,270 of my citizens to land. 152 00:12:24,070 --> 00:12:27,100 There was another plan by John Evelyn, which I'll show you. 153 00:12:31,050 --> 00:12:36,560 Wren build an enormous amount of-- 154 00:12:36,560 --> 00:12:40,820 in the post-fire era, he built a number of churches. 155 00:12:40,820 --> 00:12:45,960 And many of them is still there. 156 00:12:45,960 --> 00:12:48,260 He, of course, built St. Paul's Cathedral. 157 00:12:51,080 --> 00:12:54,620 His clients didn't like it very much. 158 00:12:54,620 --> 00:12:57,740 In his latest, 1713, I think he was 159 00:12:57,740 --> 00:13:01,740 begging them to pay his income. 160 00:13:01,740 --> 00:13:02,840 So much for Wren. 161 00:13:06,740 --> 00:13:14,210 The principle that London would not 162 00:13:14,210 --> 00:13:17,360 be subject to the powers of the state 163 00:13:17,360 --> 00:13:20,360 to change its spatial pattern has 164 00:13:20,360 --> 00:13:23,690 been central to the maintenance of the form of London. 165 00:13:27,050 --> 00:13:30,410 London doesn't have large avenues. 166 00:13:30,410 --> 00:13:32,480 It has one, perhaps. 167 00:13:32,480 --> 00:13:37,580 Oxford Street is the old Roman road from the east to the west. 168 00:13:37,580 --> 00:13:42,320 It has no north-south road except for Regent Street, which 169 00:13:42,320 --> 00:13:44,330 we'll discuss a bit later. 170 00:13:44,330 --> 00:13:47,300 It is the imposition of a particular situation. 171 00:13:51,560 --> 00:14:00,210 The second epidemic of London was the plague. 172 00:14:00,210 --> 00:14:07,740 But before the plague, London's River Thames 173 00:14:07,740 --> 00:14:11,340 had an underclass of people who made a living 174 00:14:11,340 --> 00:14:13,403 out of the filth of this river. 175 00:14:17,480 --> 00:14:19,590 They were people called bone pickers, 176 00:14:19,590 --> 00:14:23,570 rag gatherers, pure finders, dredgermen, mudlarks, 177 00:14:23,570 --> 00:14:32,450 sewer hunters, dustmen, night soil men, bunters, toshers, 178 00:14:32,450 --> 00:14:34,790 shoremen. 179 00:14:34,790 --> 00:14:39,080 If they had all formed themselves into a union, 180 00:14:39,080 --> 00:14:41,540 this London underclass would have 181 00:14:41,540 --> 00:14:45,005 been the fifth-largest agglomeration of people 182 00:14:45,005 --> 00:14:45,755 in all of England. 183 00:14:51,030 --> 00:14:59,520 The consequences of the river's water 184 00:14:59,520 --> 00:15:04,680 being as polluted as it was was only 185 00:15:04,680 --> 00:15:10,740 established through the genius of a man called John Snow. 186 00:15:10,740 --> 00:15:12,960 Before that, the outbreaks of cholera 187 00:15:12,960 --> 00:15:16,760 were generally assumed to be a condition of the air. 188 00:15:16,760 --> 00:15:22,570 The miasmic theory of cholera was prevalent. 189 00:15:22,570 --> 00:15:25,830 London's Parliament had to shut down one summer because 190 00:15:25,830 --> 00:15:29,790 of the stench from the river. 191 00:15:29,790 --> 00:15:33,180 But John Snow-- you must read The Ghost Map. 192 00:15:33,180 --> 00:15:35,790 Has anybody read the book The Ghost Map? 193 00:15:35,790 --> 00:15:38,070 Good for you. 194 00:15:38,070 --> 00:15:43,140 I'm really using London as an example of the transformation 195 00:15:43,140 --> 00:15:47,610 of a 19th-century city under extraordinary level 196 00:15:47,610 --> 00:15:50,610 of commitment and skill. 197 00:15:50,610 --> 00:16:01,290 Up till 1854, cholera was seen as a disease borne by the air. 198 00:16:03,910 --> 00:16:06,250 There'd been many attempts to make 199 00:16:06,250 --> 00:16:12,340 the process of draining your body a little more elegant. 200 00:16:12,340 --> 00:16:15,820 A water-flushing device had been invented 201 00:16:15,820 --> 00:16:20,500 in the late 16th century, who installed a functioning 202 00:16:20,500 --> 00:16:23,290 version for his godmother, Queen Elizabeth. 203 00:16:23,290 --> 00:16:27,400 The device didn't take on until a watchmaker called 204 00:16:27,400 --> 00:16:33,670 Albert Cummings designed an improved 205 00:16:33,670 --> 00:16:36,190 version of Herrington's design. 206 00:16:36,190 --> 00:16:42,940 At the Great Exhibition of 1851, an estimated 827,000 visitors 207 00:16:42,940 --> 00:16:43,630 used them. 208 00:16:47,160 --> 00:16:54,590 After that, the seated toilet became much more common 209 00:16:54,590 --> 00:16:55,610 in London. 210 00:16:55,610 --> 00:16:58,640 According to one estimate, the average London household 211 00:16:58,640 --> 00:17:05,089 used 160 gallons of water a day in 1850. 212 00:17:05,089 --> 00:17:08,369 Thanks to the runaway success of the water closet, 213 00:17:08,369 --> 00:17:11,015 they were using 244 gallons per day. 214 00:17:15,550 --> 00:17:19,810 Snow transformed the world of cholera. 215 00:17:19,810 --> 00:17:24,760 You have to read the book to understand the Sherlock Holmes 216 00:17:24,760 --> 00:17:29,560 genius with which this man observed the situation, which 217 00:17:29,560 --> 00:17:34,990 resulted in his finding that cholera was carried 218 00:17:34,990 --> 00:17:40,960 by a bacillus borne by water. 219 00:17:40,960 --> 00:17:46,570 All of the improvement in the seated toilet seat 220 00:17:46,570 --> 00:17:49,270 simply meant that more and more feces 221 00:17:49,270 --> 00:17:52,450 were being poured into cesspools because there was no sewage 222 00:17:52,450 --> 00:17:53,480 system. 223 00:17:53,480 --> 00:17:59,980 Imagine a city where there is no sewage system, where there 224 00:17:59,980 --> 00:18:03,970 are constant outbreaks of cholera, 225 00:18:03,970 --> 00:18:12,400 until one modest general practitioner in the West End 226 00:18:12,400 --> 00:18:17,650 comes up with the notion that it's waterborne. 227 00:18:17,650 --> 00:18:23,560 Such is the genius of British endeavor at this time. 228 00:18:23,560 --> 00:18:25,780 It took only seven years. 229 00:18:32,370 --> 00:18:33,960 Yeah. 230 00:18:33,960 --> 00:18:36,540 The most advanced and elaborate sewage system 231 00:18:36,540 --> 00:18:41,970 in the entire world was largely operational by 1865. 232 00:18:41,970 --> 00:18:46,080 Joseph Bazalgette, the engineer, in six years 233 00:18:46,080 --> 00:18:51,060 had constructed nearly 82 miles of sewage 234 00:18:51,060 --> 00:18:54,420 using over 300 million bricks and nearly a million 235 00:18:54,420 --> 00:18:57,800 cubic yards of concrete. 236 00:18:57,800 --> 00:18:58,350 The main-- 237 00:19:23,350 --> 00:19:25,540 All the sewage flowed into the Thames, 238 00:19:25,540 --> 00:19:29,350 which either remained static or flowed, 239 00:19:29,350 --> 00:19:33,275 eventually, out to the sea. 240 00:19:33,275 --> 00:19:44,620 Bazalgette built two in the north and one in the south. 241 00:19:44,620 --> 00:19:51,300 This took all of the sewage and water, wastewater, 242 00:19:51,300 --> 00:19:58,370 and pumped or used elevation to export it to the sea. 243 00:20:02,260 --> 00:20:08,160 Around central London, he built two embankments, the Chelsea 244 00:20:08,160 --> 00:20:11,980 and the Victoria embankment on the north and the Albert 245 00:20:11,980 --> 00:20:13,185 embankment on the south. 246 00:20:16,110 --> 00:20:19,590 This is one of the biggest industrial feats 247 00:20:19,590 --> 00:20:21,420 in human history. 248 00:20:21,420 --> 00:20:23,700 The extraordinary thing is that if you're in London 249 00:20:23,700 --> 00:20:26,730 and you walk on the embankment, you don't know anything 250 00:20:26,730 --> 00:20:29,710 about what it's doing. 251 00:20:29,710 --> 00:20:34,980 London advertises Big Ben because you can see it. 252 00:20:34,980 --> 00:20:40,280 The underground of cities is impalpable. 253 00:20:40,280 --> 00:20:47,780 This is an extraordinary example of the genius, Sir Joseph 254 00:20:47,780 --> 00:20:51,485 Paxton, who designed the Crystal Palace, the Gardener. 255 00:20:51,485 --> 00:20:55,290 He said, we in Britain solve problems by common sense 256 00:20:55,290 --> 00:20:58,765 and technology, not bombast. 257 00:21:01,430 --> 00:21:03,980 I wonder what the American-- 258 00:21:03,980 --> 00:21:09,560 what a city like Boston would build in six years, hardly 259 00:21:09,560 --> 00:21:10,370 a sewage system. 260 00:21:20,720 --> 00:21:27,490 The next issue again starts with a disaster. 261 00:21:27,490 --> 00:21:30,130 We want to examine the transformation of land 262 00:21:30,130 --> 00:21:32,500 in central London. 263 00:21:32,500 --> 00:21:33,685 We start with a story. 264 00:21:38,760 --> 00:21:44,130 Alexander, the nephew of Mr. Hugh Audley, 265 00:21:44,130 --> 00:21:48,300 died in the plague. 266 00:21:48,300 --> 00:21:51,090 Mr. Audley was a lawyer, a great leader. 267 00:21:51,090 --> 00:21:55,440 He amassed a great legendary wealth through dealings 268 00:21:55,440 --> 00:22:00,330 with a court of wards, the court which apportioned 269 00:22:00,330 --> 00:22:04,560 lands forfeited to the Crown when the owner couldn't 270 00:22:04,560 --> 00:22:07,020 pay the fees. 271 00:22:07,020 --> 00:22:17,430 Among his property rights which he accumulated 272 00:22:17,430 --> 00:22:22,020 was the Manor of Ebury, which was swamps and farmsteads which 273 00:22:22,020 --> 00:22:25,980 ran from the Thames River as far north as the old Roman 274 00:22:25,980 --> 00:22:29,790 road to Bath, Oxford Street. 275 00:22:29,790 --> 00:22:34,230 So the West End of London was a swamp. 276 00:22:34,230 --> 00:22:39,810 It accrued into the hands of this family. 277 00:22:39,810 --> 00:22:43,740 Through a number of generations, it passed down 278 00:22:43,740 --> 00:22:47,280 to a woman called Mary Davis. 279 00:22:47,280 --> 00:22:49,320 Mary Davis had needed money. 280 00:22:52,910 --> 00:22:55,505 She arranged a marriage to Lord Berkeley. 281 00:22:58,770 --> 00:23:02,550 These were rural establishments looking for land 282 00:23:02,550 --> 00:23:05,940 in the center of the city. 283 00:23:05,940 --> 00:23:09,180 Lord Berkeley-- Mary was only seven. 284 00:23:09,180 --> 00:23:13,710 And their marriage arrangement was made with the Berkeley's 285 00:23:13,710 --> 00:23:16,450 10-year-old son. 286 00:23:16,450 --> 00:23:19,140 But there was no money. 287 00:23:19,140 --> 00:23:25,560 They couldn't raise an additional 3,000 pounds. 288 00:23:25,560 --> 00:23:29,010 The next marriage deal was with Sir Thomas Grosvenor 289 00:23:29,010 --> 00:23:30,690 at the age of 21. 290 00:23:30,690 --> 00:23:32,160 Mary-- now 12-- 291 00:23:32,160 --> 00:23:36,420 was married in 1677. 292 00:23:36,420 --> 00:23:41,280 Mary developed mental illness, became a fanatic critic-- 293 00:23:41,280 --> 00:23:44,910 oh, Catholic, not a critic. 294 00:23:44,910 --> 00:23:49,740 Surely some mental slip from Catholic to critic. 295 00:23:49,740 --> 00:23:51,060 They're selecting a pope. 296 00:23:51,060 --> 00:23:52,770 I suppose that's on my mind. 297 00:23:55,410 --> 00:23:58,650 Grosvenor died in 1700. 298 00:23:58,650 --> 00:24:02,520 Mary was swept off to Europe by a Roman Catholic priest 299 00:24:02,520 --> 00:24:04,440 called Father Fenwick. 300 00:24:04,440 --> 00:24:08,400 In Paris, Fenwick drugged her, married her 301 00:24:08,400 --> 00:24:11,445 to his elder brother, Edward Fenwick. 302 00:24:14,040 --> 00:24:20,460 In 1703, a court resolved Fenwick versus Grosvenor. 303 00:24:20,460 --> 00:24:24,780 The court favored the Grosvenor family. 304 00:24:24,780 --> 00:24:29,220 His son, Sir Richard, began to develop the states of Mayfair, 305 00:24:29,220 --> 00:24:32,190 Belgravia, Pimlico. 306 00:24:32,190 --> 00:24:36,540 Mary's land plus the Grosvenor's provincial estates 307 00:24:36,540 --> 00:24:44,340 produced the largest fortune in British hands, only second 308 00:24:44,340 --> 00:24:47,205 to the royal family. 309 00:24:58,480 --> 00:25:00,820 You should really be able to answer this question. 310 00:25:00,820 --> 00:25:02,500 Why are there no railway stations 311 00:25:02,500 --> 00:25:03,820 on the west side of London? 312 00:25:09,260 --> 00:25:10,475 I've just told you the story. 313 00:25:35,940 --> 00:25:40,200 Crown, crown, crown-- you can look at your diagram. 314 00:25:40,200 --> 00:25:51,560 The Grosvenor' estates-- number five, 315 00:25:51,560 --> 00:25:53,780 and these are number two-- 316 00:25:53,780 --> 00:26:01,830 as a block of land impeded the development 317 00:26:01,830 --> 00:26:06,780 of any railroad on the west. 318 00:26:06,780 --> 00:26:11,790 London is encircled by railroads, 319 00:26:11,790 --> 00:26:15,075 four miles by 1-and-1/2-mile box. 320 00:26:19,760 --> 00:26:22,810 There's a subway line which runs along this box. 321 00:26:22,810 --> 00:26:24,520 What's it called? 322 00:26:24,520 --> 00:26:25,300 Who knows London? 323 00:26:28,480 --> 00:26:30,640 Come on, you must know something about the greatest 324 00:26:30,640 --> 00:26:31,960 city in the world. 325 00:26:31,960 --> 00:26:34,540 You're studying urbanism, aren't you? 326 00:26:34,540 --> 00:26:40,300 It's like me talking about a classic case of pneumonia, 327 00:26:40,300 --> 00:26:42,670 and you don't know what the causes of pneumonia are. 328 00:26:45,190 --> 00:26:46,135 The Circle Line. 329 00:26:56,040 --> 00:27:03,570 Paddington, Euston, St. Pancras, King's Cross, 330 00:27:03,570 --> 00:27:04,575 Farringdon Street-- 331 00:27:07,180 --> 00:27:10,140 I think that's the one-- 332 00:27:10,140 --> 00:27:15,070 all linked to the industrial heartland of England-- 333 00:27:15,070 --> 00:27:22,810 Victoria, Charing Cross, Waterloo. 334 00:27:22,810 --> 00:27:25,830 All link to South Africa, and India, and the United States. 335 00:27:31,330 --> 00:27:34,130 Some of these stations on here link to Europe. 336 00:27:40,580 --> 00:27:44,210 There are no stations on this arc. 337 00:27:44,210 --> 00:27:46,520 Now you know why. 338 00:27:46,520 --> 00:27:51,500 The combination of land between the Crown and the Westminster-- 339 00:27:51,500 --> 00:27:55,130 Duke of Westminster is probably the highest ranking 340 00:27:55,130 --> 00:27:57,890 in the British aristocracy. 341 00:27:57,890 --> 00:28:00,680 The Grosvenors became the Duke of Westminster. 342 00:28:05,175 --> 00:28:05,675 OK. 343 00:28:08,820 --> 00:28:11,672 I made my point. 344 00:28:11,672 --> 00:28:12,255 It's a battle. 345 00:28:23,690 --> 00:28:31,130 It also advances the notion that the combination 346 00:28:31,130 --> 00:28:35,570 of rural land and urban land is required 347 00:28:35,570 --> 00:28:38,090 to produce great wealth-- 348 00:28:38,090 --> 00:28:41,450 at least, at this time, it was. 349 00:28:41,450 --> 00:28:44,300 Raymond Williams is correct in his book The Country 350 00:28:44,300 --> 00:28:47,090 and the City in making the point that it 351 00:28:47,090 --> 00:28:52,040 is a combination of the two that produced 352 00:28:52,040 --> 00:28:55,250 the shape of contemporary England. 353 00:28:58,880 --> 00:29:17,530 The second land story deals with the fact 354 00:29:17,530 --> 00:29:25,900 that the center of London consisted, to the most part, 355 00:29:25,900 --> 00:29:30,730 of land occupied by aristocracy. 356 00:29:30,730 --> 00:29:33,080 Large portions of land-- 357 00:29:33,080 --> 00:29:39,100 the Bedfords, the Duke of Bedford, for instance, 358 00:29:39,100 --> 00:29:42,850 occupied large portions of land. 359 00:29:42,850 --> 00:29:47,080 What emerged as a result of economic growth 360 00:29:47,080 --> 00:29:52,210 was the emergence-- and Marx makes a classical reference 361 00:29:52,210 --> 00:29:55,735 to the emergence of the middle class of the bourgeoisie. 362 00:29:55,735 --> 00:29:59,810 It has major economic factors. 363 00:29:59,810 --> 00:30:02,440 So valuable did the land become that it 364 00:30:02,440 --> 00:30:07,780 had to be transformed into sales to the middle class 365 00:30:07,780 --> 00:30:10,900 or the upper-middle class. 366 00:30:10,900 --> 00:30:17,500 So each of these states was subdivided systematically. 367 00:30:17,500 --> 00:30:19,570 Where was the first? 368 00:30:19,570 --> 00:30:24,200 These subdivided estates characteristically 369 00:30:24,200 --> 00:30:26,500 have a residential-- 370 00:30:26,500 --> 00:30:32,980 or residential in nature, have a central public, or semi-public, 371 00:30:32,980 --> 00:30:35,620 or private square in the center. 372 00:30:35,620 --> 00:30:38,680 And this animates the whole spatial pattern 373 00:30:38,680 --> 00:30:45,270 of central London, at least most of it 374 00:30:45,270 --> 00:30:47,880 to the west of Regent Street. 375 00:30:55,390 --> 00:30:59,170 This is the only city in the world 376 00:30:59,170 --> 00:31:02,380 which has used residential construction 377 00:31:02,380 --> 00:31:04,750 to build its center. 378 00:31:04,750 --> 00:31:08,710 The city was always off to the east. 379 00:31:08,710 --> 00:31:14,710 This is land which was available just through the subdivision 380 00:31:14,710 --> 00:31:18,040 of property. 381 00:31:18,040 --> 00:31:27,640 Again, Rasmussen points out that these subdivisions generally 382 00:31:27,640 --> 00:31:30,100 were little towns in themselves. 383 00:31:30,100 --> 00:31:33,040 It was the manor house, which faced north. 384 00:31:33,040 --> 00:31:35,490 There's sometimes more than one manor house. 385 00:31:38,440 --> 00:31:42,100 The housing was generally occupied 386 00:31:42,100 --> 00:31:46,510 by one family per unit, as opposed to the boulevard 387 00:31:46,510 --> 00:31:53,050 house of Paris, where every floor was a separate housing 388 00:31:53,050 --> 00:31:54,310 entity-- 389 00:31:54,310 --> 00:31:56,740 which, again, is one of the many reasons 390 00:31:56,740 --> 00:32:00,850 why London is about one-third of the density of Paris. 391 00:32:00,850 --> 00:32:04,150 The second has to do with the transportation system, which 392 00:32:04,150 --> 00:32:05,460 we'll talk about in a minute. 393 00:32:08,810 --> 00:32:11,240 Why do you think the rest of the world never followed 394 00:32:11,240 --> 00:32:16,060 the British pattern of subdividing land 395 00:32:16,060 --> 00:32:18,160 in a systematic way for housing? 396 00:32:26,470 --> 00:32:28,300 Stupid. 397 00:32:28,300 --> 00:32:39,310 Why didn't the British impose a system residential spatial 398 00:32:39,310 --> 00:32:47,170 organization as interesting and as articulate 399 00:32:47,170 --> 00:32:48,805 as the British did for London? 400 00:32:51,590 --> 00:32:54,140 I don't know how to answer the question. 401 00:32:54,140 --> 00:33:02,300 Ideas don't seem to spread all that well, good ideas. 402 00:33:02,300 --> 00:33:06,200 And of course, there are many problems 403 00:33:06,200 --> 00:33:11,450 with the fact that you're subdividing land only 404 00:33:11,450 --> 00:33:13,370 for another class of people who can 405 00:33:13,370 --> 00:33:18,560 pay the economic rent through the leasehold system 406 00:33:18,560 --> 00:33:22,150 of the subdivided estates. 407 00:33:22,150 --> 00:33:30,800 The extraordinary notion of using a building-- 408 00:33:30,800 --> 00:33:37,510 there are 151 residential squares in western London, 409 00:33:37,510 --> 00:33:47,810 77 between 1800 and 1850, but starting in 1631 410 00:33:47,810 --> 00:33:53,060 with one which is famous for other reasons. 411 00:33:53,060 --> 00:33:55,610 Its name is Covent Garden. 412 00:33:55,610 --> 00:33:57,230 Why is it called Covent Garden? 413 00:34:00,280 --> 00:34:03,280 How do you know nothing about London. 414 00:34:03,280 --> 00:34:05,320 You need, really, to spend some time 415 00:34:05,320 --> 00:34:08,420 in London learning about how this great city got 416 00:34:08,420 --> 00:34:10,420 to be put together. 417 00:34:10,420 --> 00:34:15,370 Henry VIII didn't like Catholicism. 418 00:34:15,370 --> 00:34:19,090 So he closed the convents. 419 00:34:19,090 --> 00:34:22,659 The convent which became Covent Garden 420 00:34:22,659 --> 00:34:27,560 was handed over to the Bedford family, who employed 421 00:34:27,560 --> 00:34:30,070 the great British architect. 422 00:34:30,070 --> 00:34:34,509 Who was the greatest British architect in the 17th century? 423 00:34:34,509 --> 00:34:35,679 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] 424 00:34:35,679 --> 00:34:38,500 JULIAN BEINART: Hmm? 425 00:34:38,500 --> 00:34:39,790 Inigo Jones. 426 00:34:39,790 --> 00:34:42,489 Do you know the name Inigo Jones? 427 00:34:42,489 --> 00:34:44,115 You should know them if you've studied 428 00:34:44,115 --> 00:34:45,699 the history of architecture. 429 00:34:45,699 --> 00:34:47,289 Mind you, the history of architecture 430 00:34:47,289 --> 00:34:51,790 is so badly taught that I'm not surprised that nobody 431 00:34:51,790 --> 00:34:54,190 knows the name of Inigo Jones. 432 00:34:54,190 --> 00:34:57,340 Inigo Jones is an interesting man in his own right. 433 00:35:00,040 --> 00:35:03,610 Historians have often thought that the term 434 00:35:03,610 --> 00:35:07,210 Inigo came from the fact that he was Welsh. 435 00:35:07,210 --> 00:35:11,830 It turns out that recent history has found that he actually 436 00:35:11,830 --> 00:35:14,180 traveled to India. 437 00:35:14,180 --> 00:35:17,500 And he was probably a homosexual taken to India 438 00:35:17,500 --> 00:35:20,470 by one of the aristocracy. 439 00:35:20,470 --> 00:35:26,200 And the drawings of him done in India, 440 00:35:26,200 --> 00:35:29,140 which make his life a little more complex, and perhaps 441 00:35:29,140 --> 00:35:30,820 a little more interesting. 442 00:35:30,820 --> 00:35:42,340 Anyway, he built a church, St. Martin's in the Field, 443 00:35:42,340 --> 00:35:47,440 as the main component of the square. 444 00:35:47,440 --> 00:35:49,840 The rest of the square was empty. 445 00:35:49,840 --> 00:35:53,110 There was some residential accommodation in arcades, 446 00:35:53,110 --> 00:35:55,600 which Jones designed. 447 00:35:55,600 --> 00:36:03,880 But the center became a market, became the famous market 448 00:36:03,880 --> 00:36:08,080 and developed into Covent Garden, which the great opera 449 00:36:08,080 --> 00:36:09,850 house of Covent Garden-- 450 00:36:09,850 --> 00:36:12,550 I don't know if there's any connection between an opera 451 00:36:12,550 --> 00:36:16,120 house and an agricultural market, 452 00:36:16,120 --> 00:36:19,750 but the British seem to do these strange things. 453 00:36:19,750 --> 00:36:22,420 Perhaps the market produced a number 454 00:36:22,420 --> 00:36:28,000 of people who sang and became an opera company-- 455 00:36:28,000 --> 00:36:33,085 so history's adjacency, perhaps, produces. 456 00:36:36,160 --> 00:36:40,360 What more can I say other than to look with you 457 00:36:40,360 --> 00:36:42,850 at some of these subdivisions? 458 00:36:42,850 --> 00:36:52,540 I've given you, in the handout on the first page-- 459 00:36:52,540 --> 00:36:57,415 if I remember correctly-- the landholdings. 460 00:36:57,415 --> 00:36:58,165 Are they numbered? 461 00:37:00,790 --> 00:37:03,640 Number five is the Grosvenor land. 462 00:37:03,640 --> 00:37:06,685 And number two is the Crown. 463 00:37:21,240 --> 00:37:28,020 On the diagram above that, it's got a lot of stuff on it. 464 00:37:28,020 --> 00:37:29,820 It's rather complicated. 465 00:37:29,820 --> 00:37:35,550 But essentially, starting in 1631, Covent Garden, 466 00:37:35,550 --> 00:37:42,000 you see a slow growth of subdivisions 467 00:37:42,000 --> 00:37:44,220 of these big estates. 468 00:37:44,220 --> 00:37:45,390 And with the-- 469 00:37:52,610 --> 00:37:58,400 Sir John Summerson was called the great period 470 00:37:58,400 --> 00:38:04,370 in London building, from about 1730 471 00:38:04,370 --> 00:38:07,445 to 1800-and-so, the Georgian period. 472 00:38:13,360 --> 00:38:18,080 It's interesting that these buildings, 473 00:38:18,080 --> 00:38:22,420 these new residential armatures to the squares, 474 00:38:22,420 --> 00:38:26,095 were built according to strict rules. 475 00:38:33,130 --> 00:38:39,130 One of the reasons for the care for maintenance 476 00:38:39,130 --> 00:38:44,950 of these subdivided estates is not only 477 00:38:44,950 --> 00:38:52,720 because the land was expensive but because one of the changes 478 00:38:52,720 --> 00:38:57,130 that the British land policy adopted, switching 479 00:38:57,130 --> 00:38:59,020 from freehold to leasehold. 480 00:39:01,540 --> 00:39:05,890 Royal land could never be sold. 481 00:39:05,890 --> 00:39:09,370 Freehold land was given by the king 482 00:39:09,370 --> 00:39:18,820 to a client who had served the king or queen admirably. 483 00:39:18,820 --> 00:39:21,490 No resolution of that was possible 484 00:39:21,490 --> 00:39:26,470 until Parliament, realizing the economic advantages 485 00:39:26,470 --> 00:39:31,000 of this land and the emergence of an economic class 486 00:39:31,000 --> 00:39:37,690 of private buyers, decided to pass a revision which 487 00:39:37,690 --> 00:39:42,100 is called leasehold, which meant that you were allowed, 488 00:39:42,100 --> 00:39:46,210 as a royal aristocrat, to subdivide your land over 489 00:39:46,210 --> 00:39:52,900 long and lease it to somebody for a long period of time-- 490 00:39:52,900 --> 00:39:55,000 I mean, 90 years, 100 years. 491 00:39:58,120 --> 00:40:00,640 Summerson, I think, argues that in order 492 00:40:00,640 --> 00:40:04,810 to maintain the quality of the property, 493 00:40:04,810 --> 00:40:08,500 attention had to be paid to the design of the buildings 494 00:40:08,500 --> 00:40:11,500 and the quality of the maintenance. 495 00:40:11,500 --> 00:40:12,950 I'm not sure about that. 496 00:40:12,950 --> 00:40:17,110 So it's a bit foggy as to whether the leasehold system 497 00:40:17,110 --> 00:40:21,895 doesn't automatically imply a good maintenance of property. 498 00:40:25,520 --> 00:40:32,210 The diagram below, you can see number two, 499 00:40:32,210 --> 00:40:35,690 which is where Buckingham Palace is now-- 500 00:40:35,690 --> 00:40:39,020 two stretching all the way to the river, 501 00:40:39,020 --> 00:40:41,180 two stretching up to Regent's Park, 502 00:40:41,180 --> 00:40:43,310 which we'll talk about in a minute, 503 00:40:43,310 --> 00:40:45,710 and number five stretching roughly 504 00:40:45,710 --> 00:40:49,760 from the river, very close to number two, 505 00:40:49,760 --> 00:40:53,180 all the way up to Oxford Street, which is-- 506 00:40:56,670 --> 00:40:59,200 well, I don't know if it's exactly Oxford Street, 507 00:40:59,200 --> 00:41:02,560 but in the proximity of Oxford Street. 508 00:41:02,560 --> 00:41:07,120 These diagrams show the subdivision of two 509 00:41:07,120 --> 00:41:07,780 of the estates. 510 00:41:13,530 --> 00:41:16,380 The Matrix of Comparative Orders argument 511 00:41:16,380 --> 00:41:23,130 is from an MIT thesis which argues that West London 512 00:41:23,130 --> 00:41:27,804 suggests an intermediate order. 513 00:41:27,804 --> 00:41:31,800 A textural order, such as Rome, Parma, Delhi, Paris, 514 00:41:31,800 --> 00:41:35,850 and so on the left, and the intermediate order of West 515 00:41:35,850 --> 00:41:43,435 London, and monumental orders, and the intermediate order 516 00:41:43,435 --> 00:41:46,150 of another kind in Bath and so on. 517 00:41:46,150 --> 00:41:49,040 You can read this and work it out yourself. 518 00:42:01,490 --> 00:42:04,790 Residential squares generally had 519 00:42:04,790 --> 00:42:08,780 gardens in the center space. 520 00:42:08,780 --> 00:42:16,880 In first, gardens were private gardens. 521 00:42:16,880 --> 00:42:20,630 You inserted in the center of the residential space 522 00:42:20,630 --> 00:42:24,920 a garden, which was gated. 523 00:42:24,920 --> 00:42:29,180 This was a strange idea, to insert in the public domain 524 00:42:29,180 --> 00:42:32,300 a private-only use. 525 00:42:37,300 --> 00:42:41,900 The British never had large gardens of their own. 526 00:42:41,900 --> 00:42:45,730 So in some sense, it was a formal substitution 527 00:42:45,730 --> 00:42:51,061 of a private garden into a communal private garden, 528 00:42:51,061 --> 00:42:53,080 a very interesting idea. 529 00:42:53,080 --> 00:42:56,620 Although, as time passed, this idea passed, 530 00:42:56,620 --> 00:43:00,550 and the central squares became public. 531 00:43:00,550 --> 00:43:04,690 The later ones, the 18th and 19th century ones 532 00:43:04,690 --> 00:43:07,356 were public, generally. 533 00:43:07,356 --> 00:43:09,650 It's an extraordinarily formal device. 534 00:43:09,650 --> 00:43:14,200 So when we look at four examples of the residential squares, 535 00:43:14,200 --> 00:43:17,410 you'll see the subtle ways in which all of them 536 00:43:17,410 --> 00:43:20,330 try to play around with certain ideas-- 537 00:43:20,330 --> 00:43:23,380 the use of the road, the use of monument, 538 00:43:23,380 --> 00:43:28,330 the garden, the position of the manor house, and so on. 539 00:43:31,300 --> 00:43:35,740 The Mews of London were the servant quarters 540 00:43:35,740 --> 00:43:37,390 of these great estates. 541 00:43:37,390 --> 00:43:41,650 Do you know the word mews, M-E-W-S? 542 00:43:41,650 --> 00:43:45,280 They're some of the most expensive real estate in London 543 00:43:45,280 --> 00:43:46,420 today. 544 00:43:46,420 --> 00:43:48,400 They were the servant quarters. 545 00:43:48,400 --> 00:43:50,268 It's only the wealthy who can afford to live 546 00:43:50,268 --> 00:43:51,476 in previous servant quarters. 547 00:43:54,990 --> 00:43:58,050 It's another rule which you might remember. 548 00:43:58,050 --> 00:44:02,040 If land becomes valuable enough, small space, 549 00:44:02,040 --> 00:44:07,650 which is allocated appropriately to the workers, working class, 550 00:44:07,650 --> 00:44:13,350 becomes wealthy enough to become the sole propriety 551 00:44:13,350 --> 00:44:14,805 of a wealthy family. 552 00:44:22,940 --> 00:44:27,260 When we talk about Paris on Thursday, 553 00:44:27,260 --> 00:44:32,360 you'll see the use of the public square in Paris, the Place 554 00:44:32,360 --> 00:44:36,240 Royale, for instance, at the beginning of the 17th century. 555 00:44:36,240 --> 00:44:39,350 Now-- then, later, renamed the Place des Vosges-- 556 00:44:42,800 --> 00:44:49,160 was really the antecedent of the Covent Garden plan. 557 00:44:49,160 --> 00:44:53,060 The Covent Garden plan had an empty center, which 558 00:44:53,060 --> 00:44:55,550 was then occupied by a market. 559 00:44:55,550 --> 00:45:00,854 The Place Royale was the house-- 560 00:45:00,854 --> 00:45:04,760 the residential environment surrounding the Place Royale 561 00:45:04,760 --> 00:45:11,090 was for the French aristocracy and the royal court. 562 00:45:11,090 --> 00:45:16,940 The French never followed the residential subdivision 563 00:45:16,940 --> 00:45:18,800 of the British pattern. 564 00:45:18,800 --> 00:45:22,130 And many people, including Rasmussen-- 565 00:45:22,130 --> 00:45:24,980 London, the unique city-- 566 00:45:24,980 --> 00:45:28,880 have commented on the fact that London has always 567 00:45:28,880 --> 00:45:34,670 been a series of small endeavors, short vistas. 568 00:45:34,670 --> 00:45:37,310 There's no Main Street in London. 569 00:45:37,310 --> 00:45:40,220 There's no main avenue in London. 570 00:45:40,220 --> 00:45:42,740 There's no great avenue connecting 571 00:45:42,740 --> 00:45:47,780 major parts of the city, as was the principle of subdivision 572 00:45:47,780 --> 00:45:49,835 or spatial organization in Paris. 573 00:45:53,070 --> 00:45:56,490 In the early part of the 19th century, 574 00:45:56,490 --> 00:46:04,710 the Prince Regent and a very slick architect developer 575 00:46:04,710 --> 00:46:09,920 called John Nash hatched a plan. 576 00:46:09,920 --> 00:46:15,430 The Crown owned Regent's Park to the north. 577 00:46:15,430 --> 00:46:17,980 And there was some notion that you 578 00:46:17,980 --> 00:46:22,330 might be able to connect the Crown land with the crown 579 00:46:22,330 --> 00:46:23,665 land on the south. 580 00:46:26,590 --> 00:46:33,990 It took the making of a new street to enable to do that. 581 00:46:33,990 --> 00:46:39,200 Here, you have a beginning of the sensibility of Paris. 582 00:46:39,200 --> 00:46:46,130 Louis Napoleon, who became the French King and the patron 583 00:46:46,130 --> 00:46:51,650 of Baron Haussmann from 1848 to 1870, 584 00:46:51,650 --> 00:46:53,840 was in London at the time. 585 00:46:53,840 --> 00:46:57,410 He also spent time in Boston. 586 00:46:57,410 --> 00:47:00,590 Apparently, he made a drawing of the future of London 587 00:47:00,590 --> 00:47:03,005 in one of the restaurants in Boston. 588 00:47:07,940 --> 00:47:13,310 Regent Street has two major qualities about it. 589 00:47:13,310 --> 00:47:19,920 Number one, it was able to be the only spatial feature which 590 00:47:19,920 --> 00:47:24,620 was able to be made in London despite the edict 591 00:47:24,620 --> 00:47:29,930 that London property should remain in the hands of whoever 592 00:47:29,930 --> 00:47:33,230 owned it unless bought. 593 00:47:33,230 --> 00:47:40,490 You needed four qualities to build a new street. 594 00:47:40,490 --> 00:47:42,980 You needed an individual who had the energy 595 00:47:42,980 --> 00:47:45,950 to push the scheme through, a good route, 596 00:47:45,950 --> 00:47:48,770 an act of Parliament, and about a million pounds. 597 00:47:52,010 --> 00:47:56,810 The Prince Regent and Nash had the authority and the money 598 00:47:56,810 --> 00:47:57,650 to do this. 599 00:48:01,210 --> 00:48:06,040 The merchants of this street is a phenomenon in itself. 600 00:48:06,040 --> 00:48:09,910 We will examine that a bit later in the class, 601 00:48:09,910 --> 00:48:13,540 referring to the writings of David Friedman on this subject. 602 00:48:18,670 --> 00:48:25,720 It was contrary to the principle of land division in England. 603 00:48:28,330 --> 00:48:33,310 And it was possible, through the genius of Nash 604 00:48:33,310 --> 00:48:35,500 and his anomalous energy-- 605 00:48:35,500 --> 00:48:41,330 and there's an interesting aspect to this street. 606 00:48:41,330 --> 00:48:46,500 If you look between Oxford Street and Portland Place, 607 00:48:46,500 --> 00:48:49,585 there is something called All Souls' Church. 608 00:48:49,585 --> 00:48:52,570 Do you see it? 609 00:48:52,570 --> 00:48:55,065 When you go to London, go and look at All Souls' Church. 610 00:48:57,710 --> 00:48:59,870 It's a piece of architecture which 611 00:48:59,870 --> 00:49:02,270 indicates a fundamental principle of urbanism. 612 00:49:18,190 --> 00:49:25,530 You cannot buy the property over here or over here. 613 00:49:25,530 --> 00:49:30,030 In order to make a street run straight through, 614 00:49:30,030 --> 00:49:32,940 and you have to create a bypass. 615 00:49:32,940 --> 00:49:37,050 You design a circus in front of the church, 616 00:49:37,050 --> 00:49:42,810 a circus being a spherical space, an open space, 617 00:49:42,810 --> 00:49:51,360 in front of the church to carry the flow of the road 618 00:49:51,360 --> 00:49:55,110 through like this. 619 00:49:55,110 --> 00:49:57,840 Do you understand the principle? 620 00:49:57,840 --> 00:50:02,820 It's not a cosmic idea, but it's an idea. 621 00:50:02,820 --> 00:50:05,910 There aren't many cosmic ideas in urbanism. 622 00:50:05,910 --> 00:50:08,070 They're not in England. 623 00:50:08,070 --> 00:50:11,100 They are small ideas. 624 00:50:11,100 --> 00:50:19,200 London is, according to somebody whom I quote-- 625 00:50:19,200 --> 00:50:22,580 I don't remember his name or her name-- 626 00:50:22,580 --> 00:50:25,940 London is a city of small realities. 627 00:50:30,110 --> 00:50:36,010 There's another significant feature of Regent Street. 628 00:50:42,810 --> 00:50:46,140 Between 1840 and 1916, a man called 629 00:50:46,140 --> 00:50:49,770 Charles Booth worked in London. 630 00:50:49,770 --> 00:50:54,240 He wrote a book called Life and Labour of the People of London. 631 00:50:54,240 --> 00:51:01,110 It's 12 volumes, published between 1891 and 1900. 632 00:51:01,110 --> 00:51:02,310 What did Booth do? 633 00:51:05,840 --> 00:51:09,780 He produced something for the first time, 634 00:51:09,780 --> 00:51:13,520 which if you know something about urbanism, 635 00:51:13,520 --> 00:51:16,040 would recognize immediately. 636 00:51:16,040 --> 00:51:18,840 He made a map of poverty. 637 00:51:18,840 --> 00:51:24,395 He made the first map showing income on a plane. 638 00:51:28,220 --> 00:51:36,510 What-- Oxford Street. 639 00:51:52,820 --> 00:51:58,100 Booth's map indicates that there are more poor people living 640 00:51:58,100 --> 00:52:02,090 on this side of Regent Street than on this side. 641 00:52:04,960 --> 00:52:08,670 So what do you use new roads for? 642 00:52:08,670 --> 00:52:12,450 This is what Engels observed in Manchester. 643 00:52:12,450 --> 00:52:18,000 Roads can serve the purpose of subdividing property. 644 00:52:18,000 --> 00:52:22,170 Land on this side is much less valuable than on that side. 645 00:52:22,170 --> 00:52:28,920 This is where, by the way, Snow did his experiments on cholera. 646 00:52:32,960 --> 00:52:39,830 So we learned a number of these very little micro attributes 647 00:52:39,830 --> 00:52:45,110 of urbanism, small-scale things. 648 00:52:45,110 --> 00:52:51,150 Major revenues on one side, a major lack of revenue 649 00:52:51,150 --> 00:52:53,330 on another side. 650 00:52:53,330 --> 00:52:56,690 Regent Street is carefully modulated 651 00:52:56,690 --> 00:53:01,520 as Moses's highways were in relation to land values. 652 00:53:01,520 --> 00:53:03,770 You can't build a public road straight 653 00:53:03,770 --> 00:53:05,540 through expensive property. 654 00:53:08,940 --> 00:53:11,430 Roads can be deviated. 655 00:53:11,430 --> 00:53:17,850 Sometimes they create spatial avenues of the great charm 656 00:53:17,850 --> 00:53:20,550 by virtue of them twisting around. 657 00:53:20,550 --> 00:53:25,650 But the basic motivation is not aesthetic, it's economic. 658 00:53:29,700 --> 00:53:46,370 The other great-- have we got time? 659 00:53:46,370 --> 00:53:48,620 OK. 660 00:53:48,620 --> 00:53:53,310 In the required reading for this class, 661 00:53:53,310 --> 00:53:56,310 there was a piece which I wrote about the instruments 662 00:53:56,310 --> 00:53:59,510 of application in the 19th century. 663 00:54:04,210 --> 00:54:06,840 I won't have time to go through them. 664 00:54:06,840 --> 00:54:11,410 The first is the invention of the [INAUDIBLE] payment 665 00:54:11,410 --> 00:54:15,370 amortized building loan. 666 00:54:15,370 --> 00:54:21,400 The second is the transformation of the building union 667 00:54:21,400 --> 00:54:25,540 and building guilds into a permanent building society 668 00:54:25,540 --> 00:54:28,190 for the lending of money. 669 00:54:28,190 --> 00:54:32,770 The third is the transformation of a pre-industrial guild 670 00:54:32,770 --> 00:54:39,280 of builders into a 19th-century organization started by Thomas 671 00:54:39,280 --> 00:54:40,795 Cubitt at the age of 27. 672 00:54:44,830 --> 00:54:48,460 He employed a permanent, year-long labor 673 00:54:48,460 --> 00:54:53,230 force as opposed to day-long laborers 674 00:54:53,230 --> 00:54:56,540 provided by guild workers. 675 00:54:56,540 --> 00:55:02,740 He also could assume economic risks 676 00:55:02,740 --> 00:55:05,050 and forecast the value of property. 677 00:55:08,490 --> 00:55:12,630 He established what is called the contracting gross. 678 00:55:12,630 --> 00:55:17,730 In times of such enormous, fluctuating economy, 679 00:55:17,730 --> 00:55:20,880 it's difficult for a large investor 680 00:55:20,880 --> 00:55:23,370 to predict the cost of what he would have to pay 681 00:55:23,370 --> 00:55:26,010 at the end of the project. 682 00:55:26,010 --> 00:55:31,140 Cubitt revolutionized this by inventing the contracting gross 683 00:55:31,140 --> 00:55:35,830 by saying to the queen, it doesn't matter what happens. 684 00:55:35,830 --> 00:55:38,950 It's going to take 12 years to finish this project, 685 00:55:38,950 --> 00:55:43,620 you have to pay $300 million pounds at the end of 12 years. 686 00:55:43,620 --> 00:55:45,150 This is before-- 687 00:55:45,150 --> 00:55:48,930 I mean, this is in a time of economics-- 688 00:55:48,930 --> 00:55:51,120 well, economics is a modern science. 689 00:55:51,120 --> 00:55:54,360 It only dates, probably, from about 1900. 690 00:55:54,360 --> 00:55:59,280 So we have Ricardo, and Marx, and people like that, Malthus, 691 00:55:59,280 --> 00:56:01,046 who weren't much help in-- 692 00:56:01,046 --> 00:56:04,770 but Cubitt understood that the profits he could make 693 00:56:04,770 --> 00:56:06,870 by maintaining a labor force-- 694 00:56:06,870 --> 00:56:12,750 again, we have Marx's notion of surplus value. 695 00:56:12,750 --> 00:56:22,620 By having 1,000 workers, you reap a share of the income. 696 00:56:22,620 --> 00:56:25,320 And therefore, you become very wealthy-- 697 00:56:25,320 --> 00:56:28,800 according to Marx, anyway. 698 00:56:28,800 --> 00:56:30,660 And when you are very wealthy, you 699 00:56:30,660 --> 00:56:34,350 can take economic risks because you know what 700 00:56:34,350 --> 00:56:37,740 you can produce at what cost. 701 00:56:45,400 --> 00:56:48,880 I've mentioned the transformation from freehold 702 00:56:48,880 --> 00:56:51,110 to leasehold. 703 00:56:51,110 --> 00:56:56,770 The last of these policy implications 704 00:56:56,770 --> 00:57:02,090 is the introduction or invention of deficit spending, 705 00:57:02,090 --> 00:57:06,910 which I'll elaborate on more when we talk about Paris. 706 00:57:06,910 --> 00:57:19,190 Paris was the first to assume that the right of the state 707 00:57:19,190 --> 00:57:27,890 to private land was great, was large, significant only 708 00:57:27,890 --> 00:57:36,290 to be exceptionally reversed by private owners. 709 00:57:36,290 --> 00:57:41,480 Haussmann's property development schemes 710 00:57:41,480 --> 00:57:46,070 were schemes based on the notion of deficit spending, 711 00:57:46,070 --> 00:57:52,010 that the state could engage in large amounts of capital 712 00:57:52,010 --> 00:57:55,160 deficit on the grounds that it was 713 00:57:55,160 --> 00:57:59,030 improving the economic condition of the site. 714 00:57:59,030 --> 00:58:03,680 And the site would, over time, pay back. 715 00:58:03,680 --> 00:58:06,650 The fact that Haussmann's borrowings only 716 00:58:06,650 --> 00:58:12,350 was paid back in 1928, some 75 years after Haussmann 717 00:58:12,350 --> 00:58:16,760 spent the money, is something we'll debate 718 00:58:16,760 --> 00:58:20,420 in next Thursday's class. 719 00:58:20,420 --> 00:58:23,334 Let's look very quickly at the idea of the railroad. 720 00:58:31,570 --> 00:58:36,820 London was the first to introduce a train system 721 00:58:36,820 --> 00:58:41,770 into the compact center of a city as urbanism. 722 00:58:45,180 --> 00:58:53,460 1863, the first subway ran from on the north eastwards, 723 00:58:53,460 --> 00:58:58,410 from Paddington Station past all of those stations, 724 00:58:58,410 --> 00:59:04,980 to the last one on the bend, Farringdon Street. 725 00:59:07,520 --> 00:59:13,590 These were [INAUDIBLE] conditions. 726 00:59:13,590 --> 00:59:17,450 It was only a small indentation in the Earth. 727 00:59:17,450 --> 00:59:21,140 And the train ran without any ventilation, 728 00:59:21,140 --> 00:59:22,335 except from the sky. 729 00:59:25,160 --> 00:59:27,260 It was enormously successful. 730 00:59:27,260 --> 00:59:34,040 There were millions-- it ran from 1873 to 1890 731 00:59:34,040 --> 00:59:37,340 regularly at 10-minute intervals. 732 00:59:37,340 --> 00:59:41,720 And I think it carried something like a million or 10 733 00:59:41,720 --> 00:59:44,990 million people regularly. 734 00:59:44,990 --> 00:59:50,360 In 1890, the deep, old tunnel was reintroduced largely 735 00:59:50,360 --> 00:59:56,000 by an American financier, Mr. Sprague. 736 00:59:56,000 --> 01:00:03,710 And that set the pattern for the building of a complete subway 737 01:00:03,710 --> 01:00:10,490 system, almost complete in 1900. 738 01:00:10,490 --> 01:00:12,560 I saw an estimate of what it would 739 01:00:12,560 --> 01:00:15,860 cost for a contemporary city to build this, the London 740 01:00:15,860 --> 01:00:17,540 Underground system. 741 01:00:17,540 --> 01:00:22,310 And there's not enough money, not enough capital in the world 742 01:00:22,310 --> 01:00:23,680 to pay for it. 743 01:00:23,680 --> 01:00:25,430 Of course, that's an exaggeration. 744 01:00:25,430 --> 01:00:27,230 There is enough capital. 745 01:00:27,230 --> 01:00:32,810 But it's beyond the reach of any living city. 746 01:00:32,810 --> 01:00:37,250 The British were very clever in investing in the sewage system 747 01:00:37,250 --> 01:00:40,310 and in the public transportation system. 748 01:00:40,310 --> 01:00:46,160 They coupled the inner circumstances, 749 01:00:46,160 --> 01:00:51,950 with various colored lines, with the suburban system, 750 01:00:51,950 --> 01:00:55,790 which connected to the outside, as yet relatively 751 01:00:55,790 --> 01:00:58,865 unbuilt villages and towns. 752 01:01:03,610 --> 01:01:07,420 There's a lot of details to be discussed around the building 753 01:01:07,420 --> 01:01:09,370 of the subway systems. 754 01:01:09,370 --> 01:01:11,920 There was enormous costs involved 755 01:01:11,920 --> 01:01:16,810 in getting some of these stations. 756 01:01:16,810 --> 01:01:20,560 For instance, one writer suggested that he took-- 757 01:01:24,935 --> 01:01:25,435 yeah. 758 01:01:30,430 --> 01:01:32,320 The London and Birmingham railway, 759 01:01:32,320 --> 01:01:35,890 from the Midlands to Lord Southampton's Euston station-- 760 01:01:40,220 --> 01:01:43,160 the railroad failed to persuade the bid for the estate 761 01:01:43,160 --> 01:01:45,620 to allow it any further. 762 01:01:45,620 --> 01:01:48,950 It took an army of 20,000 men to construct 763 01:01:48,950 --> 01:01:51,410 and was probably the largest public work ever 764 01:01:51,410 --> 01:01:54,830 to be undertaken in the whole history of man 765 01:01:54,830 --> 01:02:01,190 with the possible exception of the Great Wall of China. 766 01:02:01,190 --> 01:02:04,850 Digging this underground tunnel in order 767 01:02:04,850 --> 01:02:09,140 that Euston could get to Marylebone high road 768 01:02:09,140 --> 01:02:12,950 and be part of the central combination-- 769 01:02:12,950 --> 01:02:17,750 11 million passengers in the first year, and so on. 770 01:02:22,580 --> 01:02:24,350 To leave us time to look at this, 771 01:02:24,350 --> 01:02:29,840 I'm going to shorten the last part of this investigation. 772 01:02:29,840 --> 01:02:34,115 Let's simply say one or two things. 773 01:02:39,350 --> 01:02:43,340 From the provision of housing for the poorer 774 01:02:43,340 --> 01:02:49,590 part of the population to the state 775 01:02:49,590 --> 01:02:56,000 accepting some role, a major role in its care, 776 01:02:56,000 --> 01:03:01,760 it was a variety of moves, largely through charity 777 01:03:01,760 --> 01:03:04,330 and philanthropy. 778 01:03:04,330 --> 01:03:06,320 There was the Octavia Hill system. 779 01:03:06,320 --> 01:03:09,350 There was philanthropy for 5%. 780 01:03:09,350 --> 01:03:11,510 Everybody assumed that philanthropy 781 01:03:11,510 --> 01:03:14,450 had to provide a profit. 782 01:03:14,450 --> 01:03:18,500 There was the Octavia Hill system. 783 01:03:18,500 --> 01:03:23,330 There were arguments that the poor needed resuscitation 784 01:03:23,330 --> 01:03:28,580 through avoiding alcohol, through temperance 785 01:03:28,580 --> 01:03:32,240 associations, through teaching the Octavia Hill 786 01:03:32,240 --> 01:03:36,050 system to teaching them how to behave properly, 787 01:03:36,050 --> 01:03:41,940 how to save money, how to be proficient with their time-- 788 01:03:41,940 --> 01:03:44,720 in fact, how to be modern citizens. 789 01:03:44,720 --> 01:03:49,010 The British aristocracy assumed that it 790 01:03:49,010 --> 01:03:53,960 could do for Engels's Manchester just 791 01:03:53,960 --> 01:04:00,470 through its own generosity, plus a 5% fee for Americans 792 01:04:00,470 --> 01:04:06,320 who invested in some of these philanthropic organizations. 793 01:04:06,320 --> 01:04:12,100 In 1889, the London County Council was established. 794 01:04:12,100 --> 01:04:18,110 The London County Council became the first state or city 795 01:04:18,110 --> 01:04:23,850 organization for the planning and maintenance of the built 796 01:04:23,850 --> 01:04:26,060 city. 797 01:04:26,060 --> 01:04:27,320 It was remarkable. 798 01:04:30,830 --> 01:04:36,560 It employed the highest level of professional skill 799 01:04:36,560 --> 01:04:39,800 that it could find, people who were 800 01:04:39,800 --> 01:04:42,980 great architects like James Stirling, 801 01:04:42,980 --> 01:04:46,280 others worked for the London County Council 802 01:04:46,280 --> 01:04:50,030 before branching off on their own. 803 01:04:50,030 --> 01:05:00,130 The standard of public housing has not been challenged. 804 01:05:00,130 --> 01:05:02,950 In 1965, the London County Council 805 01:05:02,950 --> 01:05:06,940 was abolished by Margaret Thatcher 806 01:05:06,940 --> 01:05:10,870 and became the Greater London Council 807 01:05:10,870 --> 01:05:12,760 with a different position. 808 01:05:12,760 --> 01:05:17,470 But the great years of the London County Council, 809 01:05:17,470 --> 01:05:22,660 a very left-wing organization-- 810 01:05:22,660 --> 01:05:25,150 one of the architects who worked-- 811 01:05:25,150 --> 01:05:29,470 I remember flying from the Far East 812 01:05:29,470 --> 01:05:33,700 with this gentleman, who was a well-known architect in London, 813 01:05:33,700 --> 01:05:37,720 who told me of his first week working in London County 814 01:05:37,720 --> 01:05:43,000 Council, of being taken to a pub on the Friday afternoon 815 01:05:43,000 --> 01:05:46,390 and asked whether he was a socialist or not. 816 01:05:46,390 --> 01:05:51,370 And he had to pass the test by answering a bunch of questions. 817 01:05:57,040 --> 01:06:03,050 Are there any questions about this incredibly brief survey 818 01:06:03,050 --> 01:06:06,250 one of the world's great cities? 819 01:06:06,250 --> 01:06:09,700 I apologize for doing it in the only way I 820 01:06:09,700 --> 01:06:11,860 can think of doing it, and that's 821 01:06:11,860 --> 01:06:13,750 to pick on some characteristics. 822 01:06:17,020 --> 01:06:20,020 There are some very good books and London. 823 01:06:20,020 --> 01:06:22,470 Landlords to London is a good book. 824 01:06:22,470 --> 01:06:26,260 There are a number of others for those of you 825 01:06:26,260 --> 01:06:30,260 who want to examine the thing in greater detail. 826 01:06:35,685 --> 01:06:38,910 But let's discuss. 827 01:06:38,910 --> 01:06:42,300 We're talking about 1824, 1830. 828 01:06:42,300 --> 01:06:45,050 Engels is writing a book in Manchester. 829 01:06:47,615 --> 01:06:48,990 We're talking about the Enclosure 830 01:06:48,990 --> 01:06:54,420 Acts, all of the penalties imposed on the emergent working 831 01:06:54,420 --> 01:06:55,800 class. 832 01:06:55,800 --> 01:06:59,610 Slowly, the emergent working class 833 01:06:59,610 --> 01:07:03,600 gains a foothold in the British democracy 834 01:07:03,600 --> 01:07:07,710 and sets off 100 years. 835 01:07:10,425 --> 01:07:14,820 And the 100 years produces all of these things-- 836 01:07:14,820 --> 01:07:21,560 the first railway train, underground, the first building 837 01:07:21,560 --> 01:07:26,570 bylaws, rescuing and transforming 838 01:07:26,570 --> 01:07:31,910 a city from a completely different environment, 839 01:07:31,910 --> 01:07:35,180 in some respects, from the conditions 840 01:07:35,180 --> 01:07:39,890 that Engels expressed in the condition of the working class. 841 01:07:43,180 --> 01:07:45,700 There was no central state. 842 01:07:45,700 --> 01:07:51,700 Well, there were many things that the Soviet revolution 843 01:07:51,700 --> 01:07:55,300 offered which the British government didn't offer. 844 01:07:55,300 --> 01:08:01,150 But a completely remarkable Renaissance-- 845 01:08:01,150 --> 01:08:07,000 and that with, as I repeat, only the killing of 11 or 13 846 01:08:07,000 --> 01:08:13,480 citizens over 125 years, 123 years, 847 01:08:13,480 --> 01:08:20,439 from Peterloo to Bloody Sunday in Northern Ireland. 848 01:08:20,439 --> 01:08:22,060 I think it's a remarkable-- 849 01:08:24,779 --> 01:08:29,210 it's a remarkable story for those interested in the effects 850 01:08:29,210 --> 01:08:36,484 that good action and technology can take on urban form. 851 01:08:39,050 --> 01:08:44,960 Here's the Roman crossing on the east towards what 852 01:08:44,960 --> 01:08:47,569 became the city of London. 853 01:08:47,569 --> 01:08:51,740 Here, the minimal fortifications. 854 01:08:51,740 --> 01:08:54,710 The monastery's located on the outside ring, 855 01:08:54,710 --> 01:09:01,130 close to the walls in case there's some crisis. 856 01:09:01,130 --> 01:09:07,784 The monastery can send its people to maintain the wall. 857 01:09:07,784 --> 01:09:08,284 Next. 858 01:09:12,279 --> 01:09:17,950 The Fire, the devastation of the eastern part of the city. 859 01:09:20,630 --> 01:09:25,090 [INAUDIBLE] plan on the top, the diagonalization 860 01:09:25,090 --> 01:09:30,850 and the centralisation of the Royal Exchange. 861 01:09:30,850 --> 01:09:35,590 Evelyn's scheme or [INAUDIBLE] scheme, neither of which 862 01:09:35,590 --> 01:09:37,849 gained much mileage. 863 01:09:37,849 --> 01:09:38,349 Next. 864 01:09:43,590 --> 01:09:51,060 Five and two combined, virtually, the west of London. 865 01:09:51,060 --> 01:09:55,020 This is Mary Davis, whom I spoke about. 866 01:09:55,020 --> 01:09:58,000 I don't know who took this picture of her. 867 01:09:58,000 --> 01:09:58,500 Next. 868 01:10:02,670 --> 01:10:11,800 This is the pattern of estate subdivisions. 869 01:10:11,800 --> 01:10:14,820 And see the big gap on the left? 870 01:10:14,820 --> 01:10:17,610 It is the Crown Regent's Park. 871 01:10:17,610 --> 01:10:21,305 And the north is the crown. 872 01:10:21,305 --> 01:10:25,980 A figure ground pattern of the west of London, 873 01:10:25,980 --> 01:10:32,160 indicating the black squares aerating this fabric. 874 01:10:32,160 --> 01:10:34,950 And the condition of Regent's Park 875 01:10:34,950 --> 01:10:39,330 is drawing the line from Regent's Park on the north 876 01:10:39,330 --> 01:10:42,750 Regent Street, finding its way down 877 01:10:42,750 --> 01:10:46,500 to the crown property on the west. 878 01:10:46,500 --> 01:10:48,515 Next. 879 01:10:48,515 --> 01:10:49,015 OK. 880 01:10:53,580 --> 01:10:57,060 Here are four examples. 881 01:10:57,060 --> 01:11:02,670 This is the original square, 1631. 882 01:11:02,670 --> 01:11:09,010 The [INAUDIBLE] and the elevation of Inigo Jones 883 01:11:09,010 --> 01:11:14,030 and the proposed arcades and surrounding of the square. 884 01:11:14,030 --> 01:11:22,570 The square has a large empty center like the Place Royale. 885 01:11:22,570 --> 01:11:31,855 And it's indicated in the first of these four, up on the left. 886 01:11:36,390 --> 01:11:40,930 St. James Square on the right, you see the enclosed garden. 887 01:11:40,930 --> 01:11:44,970 The entrances are carefully selected. 888 01:11:44,970 --> 01:11:49,425 There's a monument to end the vista from two of the streets. 889 01:11:56,460 --> 01:12:00,900 The Bedford square on the top right, 890 01:12:00,900 --> 01:12:04,470 1773, where you get the manor house 891 01:12:04,470 --> 01:12:07,860 in the center of the elevation. 892 01:12:07,860 --> 01:12:12,540 Here, the street system is not so carefully 893 01:12:12,540 --> 01:12:16,920 considered in relation to the design of the square. 894 01:12:16,920 --> 01:12:23,600 And here, Belgrave Square, now an attempt 895 01:12:23,600 --> 01:12:26,090 to break the mold of the Georgian square 896 01:12:26,090 --> 01:12:30,800 by putting the manor houses outside the main elevation, 897 01:12:30,800 --> 01:12:34,220 in the four corners, opening the square. 898 01:12:34,220 --> 01:12:36,140 This is not a gated square. 899 01:12:36,140 --> 01:12:43,190 This is now a public square, although treed, secondary manor 900 01:12:43,190 --> 01:12:45,560 houses in the center of the facade. 901 01:12:48,080 --> 01:12:50,110 Next. 902 01:12:50,110 --> 01:13:03,664 Grosvenor Square on the right, the manor house 903 01:13:03,664 --> 01:13:07,110 with the gabled facade in the center of the facade. 904 01:13:11,405 --> 01:13:11,905 Next. 905 01:13:14,470 --> 01:13:16,300 OK. 906 01:13:16,300 --> 01:13:18,640 We could have many more illustrations 907 01:13:18,640 --> 01:13:24,010 of these squares, the whole idea of being able to link the crown 908 01:13:24,010 --> 01:13:28,750 property in Regent's Park systematically 909 01:13:28,750 --> 01:13:34,915 through to Green Park in Buckingham Palace. 910 01:13:38,200 --> 01:13:42,880 The number of intersecting roads and the degree 911 01:13:42,880 --> 01:13:46,885 of the difficulty of purchasing what 912 01:13:46,885 --> 01:13:51,230 was cheap land and property on either sides of the road. 913 01:13:51,230 --> 01:13:51,730 Next. 914 01:13:58,970 --> 01:14:03,260 This is looking up, northwards, to All Souls' Church. 915 01:14:03,260 --> 01:14:08,570 What you see is that spin-wheel of an arcade 916 01:14:08,570 --> 01:14:12,990 to turn you to the northwest. 917 01:14:12,990 --> 01:14:13,490 Next. 918 01:14:16,810 --> 01:14:22,930 Booth's map-- here is Regent Street 919 01:14:22,930 --> 01:14:27,850 in the quadrant leading to Piccadilly Circus. 920 01:14:27,850 --> 01:14:34,150 Look at the black and gray areas to the right of Regent Street, 921 01:14:34,150 --> 01:14:39,925 and the almost totally dark red environment on the left. 922 01:14:43,450 --> 01:14:46,035 It's another one of Booths mapping. 923 01:14:46,035 --> 01:14:48,115 That's of pubs. 924 01:14:52,870 --> 01:14:58,900 British [INAUDIBLE] gin until they stopped drinking gin 925 01:14:58,900 --> 01:15:04,000 and started drinking tea are regarded as-- 926 01:15:04,000 --> 01:15:06,925 cited in one of the demographies of London. 927 01:15:09,970 --> 01:15:11,440 It's a startling map. 928 01:15:18,600 --> 01:15:26,910 It's one of the first attempts to connect social status 929 01:15:26,910 --> 01:15:29,980 with built form. 930 01:15:29,980 --> 01:15:30,480 Next. 931 01:15:34,166 --> 01:15:41,050 A 4-by-1-and-1/2 square, Sir Joseph Paxton, 932 01:15:41,050 --> 01:15:46,420 after the Crystal Palace, proposed an elevated walking 933 01:15:46,420 --> 01:15:51,940 route around the 4-by-1-and-1/2-mile center 934 01:15:51,940 --> 01:15:53,150 of the city. 935 01:15:53,150 --> 01:15:57,640 You can see this, all the railway lines from the north, 936 01:15:57,640 --> 01:16:06,430 from Paddington to King's Cross, serving 937 01:16:06,430 --> 01:16:10,540 the north, industry to north, and the three stations 938 01:16:10,540 --> 01:16:13,120 on the south-- 939 01:16:13,120 --> 01:16:20,080 Waterloo, Victoria, and Charing Cross, essentially serving. 940 01:16:20,080 --> 01:16:27,550 And the British-- the subway system in the center, 941 01:16:27,550 --> 01:16:32,950 moving outwards and then connecting to a suburban 942 01:16:32,950 --> 01:16:40,240 railroad system, a remarkable application of public 943 01:16:40,240 --> 01:16:44,410 transportation technology as early as-- 944 01:16:44,410 --> 01:16:48,800 prior to the 20th century. 945 01:16:48,800 --> 01:16:49,300 Next. 946 01:16:55,230 --> 01:17:00,840 Building the metropolitan line on the left, the upper one, 947 01:17:00,840 --> 01:17:05,550 crossing the River Thames with the train on the left, 948 01:17:05,550 --> 01:17:13,200 the embankment of the sewage system 949 01:17:13,200 --> 01:17:18,145 and the new sewer lines on the right. 950 01:17:18,145 --> 01:17:18,645 Next. 951 01:17:21,210 --> 01:17:24,240 Marylebone and Euston Street being the facades 952 01:17:24,240 --> 01:17:27,180 of these great railway termini. 953 01:17:27,180 --> 01:17:32,260 Now, the railway termini were ambiguous in themselves. 954 01:17:32,260 --> 01:17:36,900 They were urban manifestations with pronounced facades, 955 01:17:36,900 --> 01:17:44,760 and hotels, and enormous formal energy expended in order 956 01:17:44,760 --> 01:17:49,260 that you should penetrate this railway station-- 957 01:17:49,260 --> 01:17:52,800 which, after all, is just a technological feat, 958 01:17:52,800 --> 01:17:56,220 just a train and a railway line, and some toilets, 959 01:17:56,220 --> 01:17:56,970 and ticket booths. 960 01:17:59,520 --> 01:18:01,830 It doesn't require [LAUGHS] this apparatus 961 01:18:01,830 --> 01:18:07,850 in the front unless you're conscious of the city. 962 01:18:07,850 --> 01:18:10,530 I like a city which pays attention 963 01:18:10,530 --> 01:18:13,350 to places of public significance, 964 01:18:13,350 --> 01:18:15,974 even if it there's only a toilet behind. 965 01:18:15,974 --> 01:18:17,412 AUDIENCE: [LAUGHS] 966 01:18:17,412 --> 01:18:18,870 JULIAN BEINART: I wish our airports 967 01:18:18,870 --> 01:18:22,890 had some way of galvanizing their presence in the city. 968 01:18:22,890 --> 01:18:27,220 They are little technological nightmares. 969 01:18:27,220 --> 01:18:27,720 Next. 970 01:18:31,010 --> 01:18:36,005 Charing Cross and St Pancras Station being built. Next. 971 01:18:39,930 --> 01:18:45,540 Behind this neoclassical Victorian facade 972 01:18:45,540 --> 01:18:49,590 lies the technological enterprise. 973 01:18:49,590 --> 01:18:51,660 This is Birmingham on the right, which 974 01:18:51,660 --> 01:18:56,010 was the largest single span at the time in the world, St 975 01:18:56,010 --> 01:18:57,330 Pancras on the left. 976 01:18:59,875 --> 01:19:00,375 Next. 977 01:19:03,550 --> 01:19:10,300 Attempts to indulge in this internal space of the railway 978 01:19:10,300 --> 01:19:14,200 station with the same grandeur that the external facade 979 01:19:14,200 --> 01:19:15,665 on the street has. 980 01:19:15,665 --> 01:19:16,165 Next. 981 01:19:21,690 --> 01:19:27,360 Victoria Station in England, something of a market, 982 01:19:27,360 --> 01:19:33,190 Munich being a taking over of the center 983 01:19:33,190 --> 01:19:36,865 of the station as a market. 984 01:19:36,865 --> 01:19:37,365 Next. 985 01:19:40,330 --> 01:19:45,550 Victoria Station in Mumbai, designed 986 01:19:45,550 --> 01:19:50,680 with the same atmospheric aesthetic impulse 987 01:19:50,680 --> 01:19:55,150 to pronounce itself as a major monument in the city. 988 01:19:55,150 --> 01:19:58,690 And then inside, the social consequences 989 01:19:58,690 --> 01:20:03,310 of poverty displaying itself. 990 01:20:03,310 --> 01:20:09,910 These two images, this and the technological center, 991 01:20:09,910 --> 01:20:12,590 are interesting in themselves. 992 01:20:12,590 --> 01:20:13,090 Next. 993 01:20:17,180 --> 01:20:23,790 Here is another attribute of the charity world. 994 01:20:23,790 --> 01:20:25,650 This is a working-- 995 01:20:25,650 --> 01:20:35,650 a poor man's labor workstation where people don't have work 996 01:20:35,650 --> 01:20:42,550 and are just left to be fed and looked after, 997 01:20:42,550 --> 01:20:46,270 what the equivalent would be today of a homeless shelter. 998 01:20:46,270 --> 01:20:52,510 On the right is a new charity-inspired labor station. 999 01:20:52,510 --> 01:20:56,350 Now, instead of the rough, random allocation 1000 01:20:56,350 --> 01:21:01,840 of people in space, everybody is now subdivided into booths. 1001 01:21:01,840 --> 01:21:05,500 And God is Holy and God is Right in the beams. 1002 01:21:05,500 --> 01:21:09,490 The technology and theology are mixed together. 1003 01:21:09,490 --> 01:21:12,400 If you can make a beautiful place, 1004 01:21:12,400 --> 01:21:15,700 God must be able to be celebrated in it. 1005 01:21:15,700 --> 01:21:20,665 It's making of poverty a religious artifact. 1006 01:21:20,665 --> 01:21:21,165 Next. 1007 01:21:23,730 --> 01:21:28,680 And the greatest manifestation of the technology-- 1008 01:21:28,680 --> 01:21:30,810 the technology in the Crystal Palace 1009 01:21:30,810 --> 01:21:35,220 is without any pertinence in the front. 1010 01:21:35,220 --> 01:21:38,280 There is no attempt to make an entrance. 1011 01:21:38,280 --> 01:21:42,060 This is just a space for thousands 1012 01:21:42,060 --> 01:21:46,440 of people to come and see what the British are doing in India. 1013 01:21:46,440 --> 01:21:48,010 There are trees inside. 1014 01:21:48,010 --> 01:21:48,510 Next. 1015 01:21:51,780 --> 01:21:58,170 Modernism, modern inventions are portrayed. 1016 01:21:58,170 --> 01:22:06,900 One wants to compare this to 1893 in Chicago. 1017 01:22:06,900 --> 01:22:09,231 This was 1851. 1018 01:22:09,231 --> 01:22:14,710 50 years later, the same attempt was attempted in Chicago. 1019 01:22:14,710 --> 01:22:16,920 And we'll compare the two. 1020 01:22:16,920 --> 01:22:19,660 Next. 1021 01:22:19,660 --> 01:22:25,500 That's the story of London, as briefly as I can explain it.