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JULIAN BEINART: To describe
the spatial history of London

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00:00:30,540 --> 00:00:37,530
in 45 minutes is impossible.

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00:00:37,530 --> 00:00:44,130
London has to be seen in the
light of a number of issues.

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00:00:44,130 --> 00:00:46,680
It's the greatest
open city in history.

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00:00:51,750 --> 00:00:55,980
I'm going to be interested
in the spatial development

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of London from about 1750
onwards, the period which

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00:01:04,560 --> 00:01:09,150
we have demarcated as being
the advent of modernism.

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00:01:17,495 --> 00:01:17,995
Sit down.

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00:01:30,460 --> 00:01:36,760
London was first occupied
by the Romans in 43 AD.

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00:01:36,760 --> 00:01:40,630
And they stayed in
England until about 400

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00:01:40,630 --> 00:01:45,900
AD, a long period of time.

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00:01:45,900 --> 00:01:48,685
London never built great walls.

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00:01:52,360 --> 00:01:57,160
As I said in a previous
class, the walls in Europe

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are widest on the east
and get distinctly less.

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00:02:07,240 --> 00:02:10,030
Paris rebuilt the walls a
number of times, as late

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00:02:10,030 --> 00:02:11,350
as the 19th century.

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00:02:11,350 --> 00:02:15,610
But the British, separated
from continental Europe,

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00:02:15,610 --> 00:02:21,550
never invested a great deal
in protecting the city.

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00:02:21,550 --> 00:02:26,560
The crossing of the River Thames
was towards the northeast--

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00:02:26,560 --> 00:02:29,890
that is, towards what is
now the city of London,

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00:02:29,890 --> 00:02:34,315
the business and most protected
original part of London.

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00:02:38,350 --> 00:02:45,670
The period post [INAUDIBLE]
can be characterized

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00:02:45,670 --> 00:02:49,180
by the application
of the British

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00:02:49,180 --> 00:02:54,550
of a number of contested
arenas of social life

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00:02:54,550 --> 00:02:55,840
and economic life.

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00:03:05,580 --> 00:03:09,660
Already in 1838, the
Chartist movement

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00:03:09,660 --> 00:03:14,820
agitated for the
Democratic use of the vote.

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00:03:14,820 --> 00:03:17,190
The first labor
unions were starting

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00:03:17,190 --> 00:03:21,360
to be originated in
the early 19th century.

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00:03:21,360 --> 00:03:29,840
Charged labor was
put out of business.

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00:03:29,840 --> 00:03:33,680
The origins of public housing--

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00:03:33,680 --> 00:03:38,180
the state never built
housing for people

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00:03:38,180 --> 00:03:44,310
except if there had to be
housed under poverty conditions.

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00:03:44,310 --> 00:03:52,460
Most of the cities
in pre-English Europe

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00:03:52,460 --> 00:03:59,330
relied on religious powers
and charity to house people.

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00:03:59,330 --> 00:04:03,950
There was no notion that the
public had any responsibility

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00:04:03,950 --> 00:04:06,510
for housing the population.

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00:04:06,510 --> 00:04:10,760
So at least amongst
the many innovations

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00:04:10,760 --> 00:04:15,890
that this period
endorses, one would

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00:04:15,890 --> 00:04:20,180
include the major,
major, major organization

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00:04:20,180 --> 00:04:27,530
of the state towards
environmental improvement,

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00:04:27,530 --> 00:04:31,070
taking care of
public sanitation,

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00:04:31,070 --> 00:04:39,830
the origin of welfare, state
health, building bylaws,

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00:04:39,830 --> 00:04:44,390
the emergence of
women's rights, the laws

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00:04:44,390 --> 00:04:50,540
against racial discrimination,
and the emergence

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00:04:50,540 --> 00:04:51,860
of the first--

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00:04:51,860 --> 00:05:01,890
I would call the modern
city-planning organization

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00:05:01,890 --> 00:05:13,800
with London County Council,
1889 to 1965, the most dramatic

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00:05:13,800 --> 00:05:19,620
state organization to
organize the application

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00:05:19,620 --> 00:05:24,990
of spatial and
social principles.

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00:05:28,576 --> 00:05:30,425
The London County Council--

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00:05:35,490 --> 00:05:38,790
one of the problems
about city planning

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00:05:38,790 --> 00:05:43,020
is that you need an organization
internal to the state

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00:05:43,020 --> 00:05:47,190
or to the city to maintain
the quality of work.

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00:05:47,190 --> 00:05:50,600
Outside consultants are OK.

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00:05:50,600 --> 00:05:53,340
Unlike architecture,
with outside consultants,

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you can build a building.

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00:05:56,160 --> 00:05:58,620
City planning is a
continuous process

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of adjustment, management
of public wealth

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00:06:03,180 --> 00:06:05,940
and private wealth.

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00:06:05,940 --> 00:06:10,350
And one of the biggest
problems of working

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00:06:10,350 --> 00:06:14,820
in many parts of the
world today, for me,

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is to adjust the level
of work in relation

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to the level of the
capacity of application.

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00:06:25,860 --> 00:06:31,560
There's no point in using
advanced levels of spatial

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00:06:31,560 --> 00:06:36,870
control in a city which cannot
maintain its application

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00:06:36,870 --> 00:06:39,460
and adjustment.

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00:06:39,460 --> 00:06:49,650
I'm just, at the moment, engaged
with the city of Abu Dhabi, who

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wants some help making
a new strategic plan.

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00:06:54,930 --> 00:06:58,770
They want to do it without
outside consultants.

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They want to do it through
their own internal labor force.

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The real question is whether
they're going to be able to.

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00:07:05,900 --> 00:07:08,380
But that's an
ongoing discussion,

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00:07:08,380 --> 00:07:09,760
which I'm having with them.

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00:07:14,460 --> 00:07:20,550
London had already
established an enormous number

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of characteristics of a
cultured and open city.

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00:07:25,320 --> 00:07:30,285
Shakespeare bought a
house in London in 1613.

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00:07:30,285 --> 00:07:32,880
He paid for it
through the profits

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00:07:32,880 --> 00:07:37,800
he made on theater
audiences in central London.

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00:07:45,190 --> 00:07:47,770
John Locke, in 1685--

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00:07:47,770 --> 00:07:53,710
1689, perhaps--
published a paper

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00:07:53,710 --> 00:07:58,300
arguing for the separation
of church and state.

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00:07:58,300 --> 00:08:02,230
It was really towards the
end of the 17th century.

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00:08:06,130 --> 00:08:11,530
London has maintained
itself as an open city.

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00:08:11,530 --> 00:08:16,900
2.6 million of the current
population of London

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00:08:16,900 --> 00:08:19,540
are foreign-born.

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00:08:19,540 --> 00:08:24,970
That's about 30% of the
population of London today

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00:08:24,970 --> 00:08:26,530
are foreign-born.

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00:08:26,530 --> 00:08:30,640
I think that's roughly
equivalent to Los Angeles.

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00:08:30,640 --> 00:08:33,970
I'm not sure about Los
Angeles, but forgive me.

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00:08:33,970 --> 00:08:36,400
I'm just guessing.

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00:08:36,400 --> 00:08:39,960
I should know, but I
don't know a great deal.

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00:08:43,270 --> 00:08:50,860
I read from the New York Times,
March the 4th, 2012, writing

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00:08:50,860 --> 00:08:53,140
about London.

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00:08:53,140 --> 00:08:55,270
Every month, some
young bureaucrat

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00:08:55,270 --> 00:08:57,460
in the Chinese
State Administration

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00:08:57,460 --> 00:09:02,920
of Foreign Exchange reaches
out to a trader in London

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00:09:02,920 --> 00:09:08,230
and buys or sells billions
worth of US treasury bonds.

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00:09:08,230 --> 00:09:12,850
London is the world's
largest market for dollars.

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00:09:12,850 --> 00:09:15,070
So if you think
about all the money

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00:09:15,070 --> 00:09:19,910
that's being paid by
the Chinese government,

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00:09:19,910 --> 00:09:22,280
it's paid to London.

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00:09:22,280 --> 00:09:29,650
London has remained the
central economic site

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00:09:29,650 --> 00:09:32,050
for a great deal of the
international world.

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00:09:35,420 --> 00:09:38,780
We thought, perhaps,
by looking at some

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00:09:38,780 --> 00:09:52,630
of the spatial attributes
from the two major disasters,

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00:09:52,630 --> 00:09:58,540
the fire of 1666 and the
plague epidemic of 1666--

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00:09:58,540 --> 00:10:07,270
no modern city has ever been
struck by two major disasters

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00:10:07,270 --> 00:10:11,830
so close to one another.

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00:10:11,830 --> 00:10:14,320
The Fire of London
was the greatest fire

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00:10:14,320 --> 00:10:15,690
the world had ever seen.

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00:10:18,360 --> 00:10:25,170
On the 1st of September,
1666, the wooden structures

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00:10:25,170 --> 00:10:29,880
close to the river,
to the docks,

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00:10:29,880 --> 00:10:33,120
exactly the same as
Chicago in the Chicago Fire

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00:10:33,120 --> 00:10:34,230
200 years later--

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00:10:37,590 --> 00:10:40,380
the mayor was
apparently unimpressed

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00:10:40,380 --> 00:10:43,030
when first called to the scene.

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00:10:43,030 --> 00:10:48,330
He expostulated, pish, a
woman might piss this out.

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00:10:48,330 --> 00:10:51,030
He woke up the next day
to find half the world

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00:10:51,030 --> 00:10:52,350
around him destroyed.

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00:10:57,200 --> 00:11:01,220
The fire interested
us less than the fact

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00:11:01,220 --> 00:11:04,970
that five days after the
flames had been controlled,

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00:11:04,970 --> 00:11:07,070
a young professor
of anatomy called

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00:11:07,070 --> 00:11:11,760
Christopher Wren, not yet
widely known as an architect,

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00:11:11,760 --> 00:11:16,830
approached the king with a plan.

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00:11:16,830 --> 00:11:21,170
The plan took no account
whatever of the medieval street

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00:11:21,170 --> 00:11:22,400
plan.

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00:11:22,400 --> 00:11:24,920
He superimposed his
grandiose vision

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00:11:24,920 --> 00:11:28,370
of wide avenues radiating
in straight lines

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00:11:28,370 --> 00:11:29,390
from the Royal Exchange.

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00:11:33,190 --> 00:11:36,340
On 13 September,
Charles II, the king,

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00:11:36,340 --> 00:11:40,120
issued a proclamation,
assuring the city that,

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00:11:40,120 --> 00:11:42,190
quote, "though
every man must not

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00:11:42,190 --> 00:11:45,340
be suffered to reap
whatever--" oh, I

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00:11:45,340 --> 00:11:47,980
don't want to read the quote.

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00:11:47,980 --> 00:11:50,440
Essentially, Wren
assumed that you

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00:11:50,440 --> 00:11:56,290
could socialize land and
change the form of a city

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00:11:56,290 --> 00:12:00,130
by imposing a new
spatial pattern on it.

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00:12:00,130 --> 00:12:04,240
The king said no, in
England, we respect

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00:12:04,240 --> 00:12:06,640
the ownership of
private property,

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00:12:06,640 --> 00:12:12,820
even if it's of a small scale.

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00:12:12,820 --> 00:12:15,580
And I will not
endorse a plan which

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00:12:15,580 --> 00:12:19,360
does not advocate the
maintenance of the rights

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00:12:19,360 --> 00:12:21,270
of my citizens to land.

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00:12:24,070 --> 00:12:27,100
There was another plan by John
Evelyn, which I'll show you.

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00:12:31,050 --> 00:12:36,560
Wren build an
enormous amount of--

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00:12:36,560 --> 00:12:40,820
in the post-fire era, he
built a number of churches.

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00:12:40,820 --> 00:12:45,960
And many of them is still there.

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00:12:45,960 --> 00:12:48,260
He, of course, built
St. Paul's Cathedral.

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00:12:51,080 --> 00:12:54,620
His clients didn't
like it very much.

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00:12:54,620 --> 00:12:57,740
In his latest,
1713, I think he was

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00:12:57,740 --> 00:13:01,740
begging them to pay his income.

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00:13:01,740 --> 00:13:02,840
So much for Wren.

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00:13:06,740 --> 00:13:14,210
The principle that
London would not

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00:13:14,210 --> 00:13:17,360
be subject to the
powers of the state

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00:13:17,360 --> 00:13:20,360
to change its
spatial pattern has

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00:13:20,360 --> 00:13:23,690
been central to the maintenance
of the form of London.

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00:13:27,050 --> 00:13:30,410
London doesn't
have large avenues.

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00:13:30,410 --> 00:13:32,480
It has one, perhaps.

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00:13:32,480 --> 00:13:37,580
Oxford Street is the old Roman
road from the east to the west.

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00:13:37,580 --> 00:13:42,320
It has no north-south road
except for Regent Street, which

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00:13:42,320 --> 00:13:44,330
we'll discuss a bit later.

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00:13:44,330 --> 00:13:47,300
It is the imposition of
a particular situation.

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00:13:51,560 --> 00:14:00,210
The second epidemic of
London was the plague.

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00:14:00,210 --> 00:14:07,740
But before the plague,
London's River Thames

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00:14:07,740 --> 00:14:11,340
had an underclass of
people who made a living

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00:14:11,340 --> 00:14:13,403
out of the filth of this river.

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00:14:17,480 --> 00:14:19,590
They were people
called bone pickers,

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00:14:19,590 --> 00:14:23,570
rag gatherers, pure finders,
dredgermen, mudlarks,

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00:14:23,570 --> 00:14:32,450
sewer hunters, dustmen, night
soil men, bunters, toshers,

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00:14:32,450 --> 00:14:34,790
shoremen.

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00:14:34,790 --> 00:14:39,080
If they had all formed
themselves into a union,

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00:14:39,080 --> 00:14:41,540
this London
underclass would have

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00:14:41,540 --> 00:14:45,005
been the fifth-largest
agglomeration of people

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00:14:45,005 --> 00:14:45,755
in all of England.

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00:14:51,030 --> 00:14:59,520
The consequences of
the river's water

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00:14:59,520 --> 00:15:04,680
being as polluted
as it was was only

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00:15:04,680 --> 00:15:10,740
established through the genius
of a man called John Snow.

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00:15:10,740 --> 00:15:12,960
Before that, the
outbreaks of cholera

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00:15:12,960 --> 00:15:16,760
were generally assumed to
be a condition of the air.

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00:15:16,760 --> 00:15:22,570
The miasmic theory of
cholera was prevalent.

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00:15:22,570 --> 00:15:25,830
London's Parliament had to
shut down one summer because

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00:15:25,830 --> 00:15:29,790
of the stench from the river.

191
00:15:29,790 --> 00:15:33,180
But John Snow-- you
must read The Ghost Map.

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00:15:33,180 --> 00:15:35,790
Has anybody read the
book The Ghost Map?

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00:15:35,790 --> 00:15:38,070
Good for you.

194
00:15:38,070 --> 00:15:43,140
I'm really using London as an
example of the transformation

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00:15:43,140 --> 00:15:47,610
of a 19th-century city
under extraordinary level

196
00:15:47,610 --> 00:15:50,610
of commitment and skill.

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00:15:50,610 --> 00:16:01,290
Up till 1854, cholera was seen
as a disease borne by the air.

198
00:16:03,910 --> 00:16:06,250
There'd been many
attempts to make

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00:16:06,250 --> 00:16:12,340
the process of draining your
body a little more elegant.

200
00:16:12,340 --> 00:16:15,820
A water-flushing device
had been invented

201
00:16:15,820 --> 00:16:20,500
in the late 16th century,
who installed a functioning

202
00:16:20,500 --> 00:16:23,290
version for his godmother,
Queen Elizabeth.

203
00:16:23,290 --> 00:16:27,400
The device didn't take on
until a watchmaker called

204
00:16:27,400 --> 00:16:33,670
Albert Cummings
designed an improved

205
00:16:33,670 --> 00:16:36,190
version of Herrington's design.

206
00:16:36,190 --> 00:16:42,940
At the Great Exhibition of 1851,
an estimated 827,000 visitors

207
00:16:42,940 --> 00:16:43,630
used them.

208
00:16:47,160 --> 00:16:54,590
After that, the seated toilet
became much more common

209
00:16:54,590 --> 00:16:55,610
in London.

210
00:16:55,610 --> 00:16:58,640
According to one estimate,
the average London household

211
00:16:58,640 --> 00:17:05,089
used 160 gallons of
water a day in 1850.

212
00:17:05,089 --> 00:17:08,369
Thanks to the runaway
success of the water closet,

213
00:17:08,369 --> 00:17:11,015
they were using 244
gallons per day.

214
00:17:15,550 --> 00:17:19,810
Snow transformed the
world of cholera.

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00:17:19,810 --> 00:17:24,760
You have to read the book to
understand the Sherlock Holmes

216
00:17:24,760 --> 00:17:29,560
genius with which this man
observed the situation, which

217
00:17:29,560 --> 00:17:34,990
resulted in his finding
that cholera was carried

218
00:17:34,990 --> 00:17:40,960
by a bacillus borne by water.

219
00:17:40,960 --> 00:17:46,570
All of the improvement
in the seated toilet seat

220
00:17:46,570 --> 00:17:49,270
simply meant that
more and more feces

221
00:17:49,270 --> 00:17:52,450
were being poured into cesspools
because there was no sewage

222
00:17:52,450 --> 00:17:53,480
system.

223
00:17:53,480 --> 00:17:59,980
Imagine a city where there is
no sewage system, where there

224
00:17:59,980 --> 00:18:03,970
are constant
outbreaks of cholera,

225
00:18:03,970 --> 00:18:12,400
until one modest general
practitioner in the West End

226
00:18:12,400 --> 00:18:17,650
comes up with the notion
that it's waterborne.

227
00:18:17,650 --> 00:18:23,560
Such is the genius of British
endeavor at this time.

228
00:18:23,560 --> 00:18:25,780
It took only seven years.

229
00:18:32,370 --> 00:18:33,960
Yeah.

230
00:18:33,960 --> 00:18:36,540
The most advanced and
elaborate sewage system

231
00:18:36,540 --> 00:18:41,970
in the entire world was
largely operational by 1865.

232
00:18:41,970 --> 00:18:46,080
Joseph Bazalgette, the
engineer, in six years

233
00:18:46,080 --> 00:18:51,060
had constructed nearly
82 miles of sewage

234
00:18:51,060 --> 00:18:54,420
using over 300 million
bricks and nearly a million

235
00:18:54,420 --> 00:18:57,800
cubic yards of concrete.

236
00:18:57,800 --> 00:18:58,350
The main--

237
00:19:23,350 --> 00:19:25,540
All the sewage flowed
into the Thames,

238
00:19:25,540 --> 00:19:29,350
which either remained
static or flowed,

239
00:19:29,350 --> 00:19:33,275
eventually, out to the sea.

240
00:19:33,275 --> 00:19:44,620
Bazalgette built two in the
north and one in the south.

241
00:19:44,620 --> 00:19:51,300
This took all of the sewage
and water, wastewater,

242
00:19:51,300 --> 00:19:58,370
and pumped or used elevation
to export it to the sea.

243
00:20:02,260 --> 00:20:08,160
Around central London, he built
two embankments, the Chelsea

244
00:20:08,160 --> 00:20:11,980
and the Victoria embankment
on the north and the Albert

245
00:20:11,980 --> 00:20:13,185
embankment on the south.

246
00:20:16,110 --> 00:20:19,590
This is one of the
biggest industrial feats

247
00:20:19,590 --> 00:20:21,420
in human history.

248
00:20:21,420 --> 00:20:23,700
The extraordinary thing is
that if you're in London

249
00:20:23,700 --> 00:20:26,730
and you walk on the embankment,
you don't know anything

250
00:20:26,730 --> 00:20:29,710
about what it's doing.

251
00:20:29,710 --> 00:20:34,980
London advertises Big Ben
because you can see it.

252
00:20:34,980 --> 00:20:40,280
The underground of
cities is impalpable.

253
00:20:40,280 --> 00:20:47,780
This is an extraordinary example
of the genius, Sir Joseph

254
00:20:47,780 --> 00:20:51,485
Paxton, who designed the
Crystal Palace, the Gardener.

255
00:20:51,485 --> 00:20:55,290
He said, we in Britain solve
problems by common sense

256
00:20:55,290 --> 00:20:58,765
and technology, not bombast.

257
00:21:01,430 --> 00:21:03,980
I wonder what the American--

258
00:21:03,980 --> 00:21:09,560
what a city like Boston would
build in six years, hardly

259
00:21:09,560 --> 00:21:10,370
a sewage system.

260
00:21:20,720 --> 00:21:27,490
The next issue again
starts with a disaster.

261
00:21:27,490 --> 00:21:30,130
We want to examine the
transformation of land

262
00:21:30,130 --> 00:21:32,500
in central London.

263
00:21:32,500 --> 00:21:33,685
We start with a story.

264
00:21:38,760 --> 00:21:44,130
Alexander, the nephew
of Mr. Hugh Audley,

265
00:21:44,130 --> 00:21:48,300
died in the plague.

266
00:21:48,300 --> 00:21:51,090
Mr. Audley was a
lawyer, a great leader.

267
00:21:51,090 --> 00:21:55,440
He amassed a great legendary
wealth through dealings

268
00:21:55,440 --> 00:22:00,330
with a court of wards, the
court which apportioned

269
00:22:00,330 --> 00:22:04,560
lands forfeited to the Crown
when the owner couldn't

270
00:22:04,560 --> 00:22:07,020
pay the fees.

271
00:22:07,020 --> 00:22:17,430
Among his property rights
which he accumulated

272
00:22:17,430 --> 00:22:22,020
was the Manor of Ebury, which
was swamps and farmsteads which

273
00:22:22,020 --> 00:22:25,980
ran from the Thames River as
far north as the old Roman

274
00:22:25,980 --> 00:22:29,790
road to Bath, Oxford Street.

275
00:22:29,790 --> 00:22:34,230
So the West End of
London was a swamp.

276
00:22:34,230 --> 00:22:39,810
It accrued into the
hands of this family.

277
00:22:39,810 --> 00:22:43,740
Through a number of
generations, it passed down

278
00:22:43,740 --> 00:22:47,280
to a woman called Mary Davis.

279
00:22:47,280 --> 00:22:49,320
Mary Davis had needed money.

280
00:22:52,910 --> 00:22:55,505
She arranged a marriage
to Lord Berkeley.

281
00:22:58,770 --> 00:23:02,550
These were rural
establishments looking for land

282
00:23:02,550 --> 00:23:05,940
in the center of the city.

283
00:23:05,940 --> 00:23:09,180
Lord Berkeley--
Mary was only seven.

284
00:23:09,180 --> 00:23:13,710
And their marriage arrangement
was made with the Berkeley's

285
00:23:13,710 --> 00:23:16,450
10-year-old son.

286
00:23:16,450 --> 00:23:19,140
But there was no money.

287
00:23:19,140 --> 00:23:25,560
They couldn't raise an
additional 3,000 pounds.

288
00:23:25,560 --> 00:23:29,010
The next marriage deal was
with Sir Thomas Grosvenor

289
00:23:29,010 --> 00:23:30,690
at the age of 21.

290
00:23:30,690 --> 00:23:32,160
Mary-- now 12--

291
00:23:32,160 --> 00:23:36,420
was married in 1677.

292
00:23:36,420 --> 00:23:41,280
Mary developed mental illness,
became a fanatic critic--

293
00:23:41,280 --> 00:23:44,910
oh, Catholic, not a critic.

294
00:23:44,910 --> 00:23:49,740
Surely some mental slip
from Catholic to critic.

295
00:23:49,740 --> 00:23:51,060
They're selecting a pope.

296
00:23:51,060 --> 00:23:52,770
I suppose that's on my mind.

297
00:23:55,410 --> 00:23:58,650
Grosvenor died in 1700.

298
00:23:58,650 --> 00:24:02,520
Mary was swept off to Europe
by a Roman Catholic priest

299
00:24:02,520 --> 00:24:04,440
called Father Fenwick.

300
00:24:04,440 --> 00:24:08,400
In Paris, Fenwick
drugged her, married her

301
00:24:08,400 --> 00:24:11,445
to his elder brother,
Edward Fenwick.

302
00:24:14,040 --> 00:24:20,460
In 1703, a court resolved
Fenwick versus Grosvenor.

303
00:24:20,460 --> 00:24:24,780
The court favored
the Grosvenor family.

304
00:24:24,780 --> 00:24:29,220
His son, Sir Richard, began to
develop the states of Mayfair,

305
00:24:29,220 --> 00:24:32,190
Belgravia, Pimlico.

306
00:24:32,190 --> 00:24:36,540
Mary's land plus the
Grosvenor's provincial estates

307
00:24:36,540 --> 00:24:44,340
produced the largest fortune
in British hands, only second

308
00:24:44,340 --> 00:24:47,205
to the royal family.

309
00:24:58,480 --> 00:25:00,820
You should really be able
to answer this question.

310
00:25:00,820 --> 00:25:02,500
Why are there no
railway stations

311
00:25:02,500 --> 00:25:03,820
on the west side of London?

312
00:25:09,260 --> 00:25:10,475
I've just told you the story.

313
00:25:35,940 --> 00:25:40,200
Crown, crown, crown-- you
can look at your diagram.

314
00:25:40,200 --> 00:25:51,560
The Grosvenor'
estates-- number five,

315
00:25:51,560 --> 00:25:53,780
and these are number two--

316
00:25:53,780 --> 00:26:01,830
as a block of land
impeded the development

317
00:26:01,830 --> 00:26:06,780
of any railroad on the west.

318
00:26:06,780 --> 00:26:11,790
London is encircled
by railroads,

319
00:26:11,790 --> 00:26:15,075
four miles by
1-and-1/2-mile box.

320
00:26:19,760 --> 00:26:22,810
There's a subway line
which runs along this box.

321
00:26:22,810 --> 00:26:24,520
What's it called?

322
00:26:24,520 --> 00:26:25,300
Who knows London?

323
00:26:28,480 --> 00:26:30,640
Come on, you must know
something about the greatest

324
00:26:30,640 --> 00:26:31,960
city in the world.

325
00:26:31,960 --> 00:26:34,540
You're studying
urbanism, aren't you?

326
00:26:34,540 --> 00:26:40,300
It's like me talking about
a classic case of pneumonia,

327
00:26:40,300 --> 00:26:42,670
and you don't know what the
causes of pneumonia are.

328
00:26:45,190 --> 00:26:46,135
The Circle Line.

329
00:26:56,040 --> 00:27:03,570
Paddington, Euston, St.
Pancras, King's Cross,

330
00:27:03,570 --> 00:27:04,575
Farringdon Street--

331
00:27:07,180 --> 00:27:10,140
I think that's the one--

332
00:27:10,140 --> 00:27:15,070
all linked to the industrial
heartland of England--

333
00:27:15,070 --> 00:27:22,810
Victoria, Charing
Cross, Waterloo.

334
00:27:22,810 --> 00:27:25,830
All link to South Africa, and
India, and the United States.

335
00:27:31,330 --> 00:27:34,130
Some of these stations
on here link to Europe.

336
00:27:40,580 --> 00:27:44,210
There are no
stations on this arc.

337
00:27:44,210 --> 00:27:46,520
Now you know why.

338
00:27:46,520 --> 00:27:51,500
The combination of land between
the Crown and the Westminster--

339
00:27:51,500 --> 00:27:55,130
Duke of Westminster is
probably the highest ranking

340
00:27:55,130 --> 00:27:57,890
in the British aristocracy.

341
00:27:57,890 --> 00:28:00,680
The Grosvenors became
the Duke of Westminster.

342
00:28:05,175 --> 00:28:05,675
OK.

343
00:28:08,820 --> 00:28:11,672
I made my point.

344
00:28:11,672 --> 00:28:12,255
It's a battle.

345
00:28:23,690 --> 00:28:31,130
It also advances the
notion that the combination

346
00:28:31,130 --> 00:28:35,570
of rural land and
urban land is required

347
00:28:35,570 --> 00:28:38,090
to produce great wealth--

348
00:28:38,090 --> 00:28:41,450
at least, at this time, it was.

349
00:28:41,450 --> 00:28:44,300
Raymond Williams is correct
in his book The Country

350
00:28:44,300 --> 00:28:47,090
and the City in making
the point that it

351
00:28:47,090 --> 00:28:52,040
is a combination of
the two that produced

352
00:28:52,040 --> 00:28:55,250
the shape of
contemporary England.

353
00:28:58,880 --> 00:29:17,530
The second land story
deals with the fact

354
00:29:17,530 --> 00:29:25,900
that the center of London
consisted, to the most part,

355
00:29:25,900 --> 00:29:30,730
of land occupied by aristocracy.

356
00:29:30,730 --> 00:29:33,080
Large portions of land--

357
00:29:33,080 --> 00:29:39,100
the Bedfords, the Duke
of Bedford, for instance,

358
00:29:39,100 --> 00:29:42,850
occupied large portions of land.

359
00:29:42,850 --> 00:29:47,080
What emerged as a result
of economic growth

360
00:29:47,080 --> 00:29:52,210
was the emergence-- and Marx
makes a classical reference

361
00:29:52,210 --> 00:29:55,735
to the emergence of the middle
class of the bourgeoisie.

362
00:29:55,735 --> 00:29:59,810
It has major economic factors.

363
00:29:59,810 --> 00:30:02,440
So valuable did the
land become that it

364
00:30:02,440 --> 00:30:07,780
had to be transformed into
sales to the middle class

365
00:30:07,780 --> 00:30:10,900
or the upper-middle class.

366
00:30:10,900 --> 00:30:17,500
So each of these states was
subdivided systematically.

367
00:30:17,500 --> 00:30:19,570
Where was the first?

368
00:30:19,570 --> 00:30:24,200
These subdivided estates
characteristically

369
00:30:24,200 --> 00:30:26,500
have a residential--

370
00:30:26,500 --> 00:30:32,980
or residential in nature, have a
central public, or semi-public,

371
00:30:32,980 --> 00:30:35,620
or private square in the center.

372
00:30:35,620 --> 00:30:38,680
And this animates the
whole spatial pattern

373
00:30:38,680 --> 00:30:45,270
of central London,
at least most of it

374
00:30:45,270 --> 00:30:47,880
to the west of Regent Street.

375
00:30:55,390 --> 00:30:59,170
This is the only
city in the world

376
00:30:59,170 --> 00:31:02,380
which has used
residential construction

377
00:31:02,380 --> 00:31:04,750
to build its center.

378
00:31:04,750 --> 00:31:08,710
The city was always
off to the east.

379
00:31:08,710 --> 00:31:14,710
This is land which was available
just through the subdivision

380
00:31:14,710 --> 00:31:18,040
of property.

381
00:31:18,040 --> 00:31:27,640
Again, Rasmussen points out that
these subdivisions generally

382
00:31:27,640 --> 00:31:30,100
were little towns in themselves.

383
00:31:30,100 --> 00:31:33,040
It was the manor house,
which faced north.

384
00:31:33,040 --> 00:31:35,490
There's sometimes more
than one manor house.

385
00:31:38,440 --> 00:31:42,100
The housing was
generally occupied

386
00:31:42,100 --> 00:31:46,510
by one family per unit, as
opposed to the boulevard

387
00:31:46,510 --> 00:31:53,050
house of Paris, where every
floor was a separate housing

388
00:31:53,050 --> 00:31:54,310
entity--

389
00:31:54,310 --> 00:31:56,740
which, again, is one
of the many reasons

390
00:31:56,740 --> 00:32:00,850
why London is about one-third
of the density of Paris.

391
00:32:00,850 --> 00:32:04,150
The second has to do with the
transportation system, which

392
00:32:04,150 --> 00:32:05,460
we'll talk about in a minute.

393
00:32:08,810 --> 00:32:11,240
Why do you think the rest
of the world never followed

394
00:32:11,240 --> 00:32:16,060
the British pattern
of subdividing land

395
00:32:16,060 --> 00:32:18,160
in a systematic way for housing?

396
00:32:26,470 --> 00:32:28,300
Stupid.

397
00:32:28,300 --> 00:32:39,310
Why didn't the British impose
a system residential spatial

398
00:32:39,310 --> 00:32:47,170
organization as interesting
and as articulate

399
00:32:47,170 --> 00:32:48,805
as the British did for London?

400
00:32:51,590 --> 00:32:54,140
I don't know how to
answer the question.

401
00:32:54,140 --> 00:33:02,300
Ideas don't seem to spread
all that well, good ideas.

402
00:33:02,300 --> 00:33:06,200
And of course, there
are many problems

403
00:33:06,200 --> 00:33:11,450
with the fact that you're
subdividing land only

404
00:33:11,450 --> 00:33:13,370
for another class
of people who can

405
00:33:13,370 --> 00:33:18,560
pay the economic rent
through the leasehold system

406
00:33:18,560 --> 00:33:22,150
of the subdivided estates.

407
00:33:22,150 --> 00:33:30,800
The extraordinary notion
of using a building--

408
00:33:30,800 --> 00:33:37,510
there are 151 residential
squares in western London,

409
00:33:37,510 --> 00:33:47,810
77 between 1800 and 1850,
but starting in 1631

410
00:33:47,810 --> 00:33:53,060
with one which is famous
for other reasons.

411
00:33:53,060 --> 00:33:55,610
Its name is Covent Garden.

412
00:33:55,610 --> 00:33:57,230
Why is it called Covent Garden?

413
00:34:00,280 --> 00:34:03,280
How do you know
nothing about London.

414
00:34:03,280 --> 00:34:05,320
You need, really,
to spend some time

415
00:34:05,320 --> 00:34:08,420
in London learning about
how this great city got

416
00:34:08,420 --> 00:34:10,420
to be put together.

417
00:34:10,420 --> 00:34:15,370
Henry VIII didn't
like Catholicism.

418
00:34:15,370 --> 00:34:19,090
So he closed the convents.

419
00:34:19,090 --> 00:34:22,659
The convent which
became Covent Garden

420
00:34:22,659 --> 00:34:27,560
was handed over to the
Bedford family, who employed

421
00:34:27,560 --> 00:34:30,070
the great British architect.

422
00:34:30,070 --> 00:34:34,509
Who was the greatest British
architect in the 17th century?

423
00:34:34,509 --> 00:34:35,679
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]

424
00:34:35,679 --> 00:34:38,500
JULIAN BEINART: Hmm?

425
00:34:38,500 --> 00:34:39,790
Inigo Jones.

426
00:34:39,790 --> 00:34:42,489
Do you know the
name Inigo Jones?

427
00:34:42,489 --> 00:34:44,115
You should know them
if you've studied

428
00:34:44,115 --> 00:34:45,699
the history of architecture.

429
00:34:45,699 --> 00:34:47,289
Mind you, the history
of architecture

430
00:34:47,289 --> 00:34:51,790
is so badly taught that I'm
not surprised that nobody

431
00:34:51,790 --> 00:34:54,190
knows the name of Inigo Jones.

432
00:34:54,190 --> 00:34:57,340
Inigo Jones is an interesting
man in his own right.

433
00:35:00,040 --> 00:35:03,610
Historians have often
thought that the term

434
00:35:03,610 --> 00:35:07,210
Inigo came from the
fact that he was Welsh.

435
00:35:07,210 --> 00:35:11,830
It turns out that recent history
has found that he actually

436
00:35:11,830 --> 00:35:14,180
traveled to India.

437
00:35:14,180 --> 00:35:17,500
And he was probably a
homosexual taken to India

438
00:35:17,500 --> 00:35:20,470
by one of the aristocracy.

439
00:35:20,470 --> 00:35:26,200
And the drawings of
him done in India,

440
00:35:26,200 --> 00:35:29,140
which make his life a little
more complex, and perhaps

441
00:35:29,140 --> 00:35:30,820
a little more interesting.

442
00:35:30,820 --> 00:35:42,340
Anyway, he built a church,
St. Martin's in the Field,

443
00:35:42,340 --> 00:35:47,440
as the main component
of the square.

444
00:35:47,440 --> 00:35:49,840
The rest of the
square was empty.

445
00:35:49,840 --> 00:35:53,110
There was some residential
accommodation in arcades,

446
00:35:53,110 --> 00:35:55,600
which Jones designed.

447
00:35:55,600 --> 00:36:03,880
But the center became a market,
became the famous market

448
00:36:03,880 --> 00:36:08,080
and developed into Covent
Garden, which the great opera

449
00:36:08,080 --> 00:36:09,850
house of Covent Garden--

450
00:36:09,850 --> 00:36:12,550
I don't know if there's any
connection between an opera

451
00:36:12,550 --> 00:36:16,120
house and an
agricultural market,

452
00:36:16,120 --> 00:36:19,750
but the British seem to
do these strange things.

453
00:36:19,750 --> 00:36:22,420
Perhaps the market
produced a number

454
00:36:22,420 --> 00:36:28,000
of people who sang and
became an opera company--

455
00:36:28,000 --> 00:36:33,085
so history's adjacency,
perhaps, produces.

456
00:36:36,160 --> 00:36:40,360
What more can I say other
than to look with you

457
00:36:40,360 --> 00:36:42,850
at some of these subdivisions?

458
00:36:42,850 --> 00:36:52,540
I've given you, in the
handout on the first page--

459
00:36:52,540 --> 00:36:57,415
if I remember correctly--
the landholdings.

460
00:36:57,415 --> 00:36:58,165
Are they numbered?

461
00:37:00,790 --> 00:37:03,640
Number five is the
Grosvenor land.

462
00:37:03,640 --> 00:37:06,685
And number two is the Crown.

463
00:37:21,240 --> 00:37:28,020
On the diagram above that,
it's got a lot of stuff on it.

464
00:37:28,020 --> 00:37:29,820
It's rather complicated.

465
00:37:29,820 --> 00:37:35,550
But essentially, starting
in 1631, Covent Garden,

466
00:37:35,550 --> 00:37:42,000
you see a slow growth
of subdivisions

467
00:37:42,000 --> 00:37:44,220
of these big estates.

468
00:37:44,220 --> 00:37:45,390
And with the--

469
00:37:52,610 --> 00:37:58,400
Sir John Summerson was
called the great period

470
00:37:58,400 --> 00:38:04,370
in London building,
from about 1730

471
00:38:04,370 --> 00:38:07,445
to 1800-and-so, the
Georgian period.

472
00:38:13,360 --> 00:38:18,080
It's interesting
that these buildings,

473
00:38:18,080 --> 00:38:22,420
these new residential
armatures to the squares,

474
00:38:22,420 --> 00:38:26,095
were built according
to strict rules.

475
00:38:33,130 --> 00:38:39,130
One of the reasons for
the care for maintenance

476
00:38:39,130 --> 00:38:44,950
of these subdivided
estates is not only

477
00:38:44,950 --> 00:38:52,720
because the land was expensive
but because one of the changes

478
00:38:52,720 --> 00:38:57,130
that the British land
policy adopted, switching

479
00:38:57,130 --> 00:38:59,020
from freehold to leasehold.

480
00:39:01,540 --> 00:39:05,890
Royal land could never be sold.

481
00:39:05,890 --> 00:39:09,370
Freehold land was
given by the king

482
00:39:09,370 --> 00:39:18,820
to a client who had served
the king or queen admirably.

483
00:39:18,820 --> 00:39:21,490
No resolution of
that was possible

484
00:39:21,490 --> 00:39:26,470
until Parliament, realizing
the economic advantages

485
00:39:26,470 --> 00:39:31,000
of this land and the
emergence of an economic class

486
00:39:31,000 --> 00:39:37,690
of private buyers, decided
to pass a revision which

487
00:39:37,690 --> 00:39:42,100
is called leasehold, which
meant that you were allowed,

488
00:39:42,100 --> 00:39:46,210
as a royal aristocrat, to
subdivide your land over

489
00:39:46,210 --> 00:39:52,900
long and lease it to somebody
for a long period of time--

490
00:39:52,900 --> 00:39:55,000
I mean, 90 years, 100 years.

491
00:39:58,120 --> 00:40:00,640
Summerson, I think,
argues that in order

492
00:40:00,640 --> 00:40:04,810
to maintain the quality
of the property,

493
00:40:04,810 --> 00:40:08,500
attention had to be paid to
the design of the buildings

494
00:40:08,500 --> 00:40:11,500
and the quality of
the maintenance.

495
00:40:11,500 --> 00:40:12,950
I'm not sure about that.

496
00:40:12,950 --> 00:40:17,110
So it's a bit foggy as to
whether the leasehold system

497
00:40:17,110 --> 00:40:21,895
doesn't automatically imply a
good maintenance of property.

498
00:40:25,520 --> 00:40:32,210
The diagram below, you
can see number two,

499
00:40:32,210 --> 00:40:35,690
which is where Buckingham
Palace is now--

500
00:40:35,690 --> 00:40:39,020
two stretching all
the way to the river,

501
00:40:39,020 --> 00:40:41,180
two stretching up
to Regent's Park,

502
00:40:41,180 --> 00:40:43,310
which we'll talk
about in a minute,

503
00:40:43,310 --> 00:40:45,710
and number five
stretching roughly

504
00:40:45,710 --> 00:40:49,760
from the river, very
close to number two,

505
00:40:49,760 --> 00:40:53,180
all the way up to Oxford
Street, which is--

506
00:40:56,670 --> 00:40:59,200
well, I don't know if it's
exactly Oxford Street,

507
00:40:59,200 --> 00:41:02,560
but in the proximity
of Oxford Street.

508
00:41:02,560 --> 00:41:07,120
These diagrams show
the subdivision of two

509
00:41:07,120 --> 00:41:07,780
of the estates.

510
00:41:13,530 --> 00:41:16,380
The Matrix of Comparative
Orders argument

511
00:41:16,380 --> 00:41:23,130
is from an MIT thesis which
argues that West London

512
00:41:23,130 --> 00:41:27,804
suggests an intermediate order.

513
00:41:27,804 --> 00:41:31,800
A textural order, such as
Rome, Parma, Delhi, Paris,

514
00:41:31,800 --> 00:41:35,850
and so on the left, and the
intermediate order of West

515
00:41:35,850 --> 00:41:43,435
London, and monumental orders,
and the intermediate order

516
00:41:43,435 --> 00:41:46,150
of another kind
in Bath and so on.

517
00:41:46,150 --> 00:41:49,040
You can read this and
work it out yourself.

518
00:42:01,490 --> 00:42:04,790
Residential squares
generally had

519
00:42:04,790 --> 00:42:08,780
gardens in the center space.

520
00:42:08,780 --> 00:42:16,880
In first, gardens
were private gardens.

521
00:42:16,880 --> 00:42:20,630
You inserted in the center
of the residential space

522
00:42:20,630 --> 00:42:24,920
a garden, which was gated.

523
00:42:24,920 --> 00:42:29,180
This was a strange idea, to
insert in the public domain

524
00:42:29,180 --> 00:42:32,300
a private-only use.

525
00:42:37,300 --> 00:42:41,900
The British never had
large gardens of their own.

526
00:42:41,900 --> 00:42:45,730
So in some sense, it was
a formal substitution

527
00:42:45,730 --> 00:42:51,061
of a private garden into
a communal private garden,

528
00:42:51,061 --> 00:42:53,080
a very interesting idea.

529
00:42:53,080 --> 00:42:56,620
Although, as time
passed, this idea passed,

530
00:42:56,620 --> 00:43:00,550
and the central
squares became public.

531
00:43:00,550 --> 00:43:04,690
The later ones, the 18th
and 19th century ones

532
00:43:04,690 --> 00:43:07,356
were public, generally.

533
00:43:07,356 --> 00:43:09,650
It's an extraordinarily
formal device.

534
00:43:09,650 --> 00:43:14,200
So when we look at four examples
of the residential squares,

535
00:43:14,200 --> 00:43:17,410
you'll see the subtle
ways in which all of them

536
00:43:17,410 --> 00:43:20,330
try to play around
with certain ideas--

537
00:43:20,330 --> 00:43:23,380
the use of the road,
the use of monument,

538
00:43:23,380 --> 00:43:28,330
the garden, the position of
the manor house, and so on.

539
00:43:31,300 --> 00:43:35,740
The Mews of London were
the servant quarters

540
00:43:35,740 --> 00:43:37,390
of these great estates.

541
00:43:37,390 --> 00:43:41,650
Do you know the
word mews, M-E-W-S?

542
00:43:41,650 --> 00:43:45,280
They're some of the most
expensive real estate in London

543
00:43:45,280 --> 00:43:46,420
today.

544
00:43:46,420 --> 00:43:48,400
They were the servant quarters.

545
00:43:48,400 --> 00:43:50,268
It's only the wealthy
who can afford to live

546
00:43:50,268 --> 00:43:51,476
in previous servant quarters.

547
00:43:54,990 --> 00:43:58,050
It's another rule which
you might remember.

548
00:43:58,050 --> 00:44:02,040
If land becomes valuable
enough, small space,

549
00:44:02,040 --> 00:44:07,650
which is allocated appropriately
to the workers, working class,

550
00:44:07,650 --> 00:44:13,350
becomes wealthy enough to
become the sole propriety

551
00:44:13,350 --> 00:44:14,805
of a wealthy family.

552
00:44:22,940 --> 00:44:27,260
When we talk about
Paris on Thursday,

553
00:44:27,260 --> 00:44:32,360
you'll see the use of the public
square in Paris, the Place

554
00:44:32,360 --> 00:44:36,240
Royale, for instance, at the
beginning of the 17th century.

555
00:44:36,240 --> 00:44:39,350
Now-- then, later, renamed
the Place des Vosges--

556
00:44:42,800 --> 00:44:49,160
was really the antecedent
of the Covent Garden plan.

557
00:44:49,160 --> 00:44:53,060
The Covent Garden plan
had an empty center, which

558
00:44:53,060 --> 00:44:55,550
was then occupied by a market.

559
00:44:55,550 --> 00:45:00,854
The Place Royale was the house--

560
00:45:00,854 --> 00:45:04,760
the residential environment
surrounding the Place Royale

561
00:45:04,760 --> 00:45:11,090
was for the French aristocracy
and the royal court.

562
00:45:11,090 --> 00:45:16,940
The French never followed
the residential subdivision

563
00:45:16,940 --> 00:45:18,800
of the British pattern.

564
00:45:18,800 --> 00:45:22,130
And many people,
including Rasmussen--

565
00:45:22,130 --> 00:45:24,980
London, the unique city--

566
00:45:24,980 --> 00:45:28,880
have commented on the fact
that London has always

567
00:45:28,880 --> 00:45:34,670
been a series of small
endeavors, short vistas.

568
00:45:34,670 --> 00:45:37,310
There's no Main
Street in London.

569
00:45:37,310 --> 00:45:40,220
There's no main
avenue in London.

570
00:45:40,220 --> 00:45:42,740
There's no great
avenue connecting

571
00:45:42,740 --> 00:45:47,780
major parts of the city, as was
the principle of subdivision

572
00:45:47,780 --> 00:45:49,835
or spatial
organization in Paris.

573
00:45:53,070 --> 00:45:56,490
In the early part
of the 19th century,

574
00:45:56,490 --> 00:46:04,710
the Prince Regent and a very
slick architect developer

575
00:46:04,710 --> 00:46:09,920
called John Nash hatched a plan.

576
00:46:09,920 --> 00:46:15,430
The Crown owned Regent's
Park to the north.

577
00:46:15,430 --> 00:46:17,980
And there was some
notion that you

578
00:46:17,980 --> 00:46:22,330
might be able to connect the
Crown land with the crown

579
00:46:22,330 --> 00:46:23,665
land on the south.

580
00:46:26,590 --> 00:46:33,990
It took the making of a new
street to enable to do that.

581
00:46:33,990 --> 00:46:39,200
Here, you have a beginning
of the sensibility of Paris.

582
00:46:39,200 --> 00:46:46,130
Louis Napoleon, who became
the French King and the patron

583
00:46:46,130 --> 00:46:51,650
of Baron Haussmann
from 1848 to 1870,

584
00:46:51,650 --> 00:46:53,840
was in London at the time.

585
00:46:53,840 --> 00:46:57,410
He also spent time in Boston.

586
00:46:57,410 --> 00:47:00,590
Apparently, he made a drawing
of the future of London

587
00:47:00,590 --> 00:47:03,005
in one of the
restaurants in Boston.

588
00:47:07,940 --> 00:47:13,310
Regent Street has two
major qualities about it.

589
00:47:13,310 --> 00:47:19,920
Number one, it was able to be
the only spatial feature which

590
00:47:19,920 --> 00:47:24,620
was able to be made in
London despite the edict

591
00:47:24,620 --> 00:47:29,930
that London property should
remain in the hands of whoever

592
00:47:29,930 --> 00:47:33,230
owned it unless bought.

593
00:47:33,230 --> 00:47:40,490
You needed four qualities
to build a new street.

594
00:47:40,490 --> 00:47:42,980
You needed an individual
who had the energy

595
00:47:42,980 --> 00:47:45,950
to push the scheme
through, a good route,

596
00:47:45,950 --> 00:47:48,770
an act of Parliament, and
about a million pounds.

597
00:47:52,010 --> 00:47:56,810
The Prince Regent and Nash had
the authority and the money

598
00:47:56,810 --> 00:47:57,650
to do this.

599
00:48:01,210 --> 00:48:06,040
The merchants of this street
is a phenomenon in itself.

600
00:48:06,040 --> 00:48:09,910
We will examine that a
bit later in the class,

601
00:48:09,910 --> 00:48:13,540
referring to the writings of
David Friedman on this subject.

602
00:48:18,670 --> 00:48:25,720
It was contrary to the principle
of land division in England.

603
00:48:28,330 --> 00:48:33,310
And it was possible,
through the genius of Nash

604
00:48:33,310 --> 00:48:35,500
and his anomalous energy--

605
00:48:35,500 --> 00:48:41,330
and there's an interesting
aspect to this street.

606
00:48:41,330 --> 00:48:46,500
If you look between Oxford
Street and Portland Place,

607
00:48:46,500 --> 00:48:49,585
there is something
called All Souls' Church.

608
00:48:49,585 --> 00:48:52,570
Do you see it?

609
00:48:52,570 --> 00:48:55,065
When you go to London, go and
look at All Souls' Church.

610
00:48:57,710 --> 00:48:59,870
It's a piece of
architecture which

611
00:48:59,870 --> 00:49:02,270
indicates a fundamental
principle of urbanism.

612
00:49:18,190 --> 00:49:25,530
You cannot buy the property
over here or over here.

613
00:49:25,530 --> 00:49:30,030
In order to make a street
run straight through,

614
00:49:30,030 --> 00:49:32,940
and you have to create a bypass.

615
00:49:32,940 --> 00:49:37,050
You design a circus in
front of the church,

616
00:49:37,050 --> 00:49:42,810
a circus being a spherical
space, an open space,

617
00:49:42,810 --> 00:49:51,360
in front of the church to
carry the flow of the road

618
00:49:51,360 --> 00:49:55,110
through like this.

619
00:49:55,110 --> 00:49:57,840
Do you understand the principle?

620
00:49:57,840 --> 00:50:02,820
It's not a cosmic
idea, but it's an idea.

621
00:50:02,820 --> 00:50:05,910
There aren't many cosmic
ideas in urbanism.

622
00:50:05,910 --> 00:50:08,070
They're not in England.

623
00:50:08,070 --> 00:50:11,100
They are small ideas.

624
00:50:11,100 --> 00:50:19,200
London is, according to
somebody whom I quote--

625
00:50:19,200 --> 00:50:22,580
I don't remember his
name or her name--

626
00:50:22,580 --> 00:50:25,940
London is a city
of small realities.

627
00:50:30,110 --> 00:50:36,010
There's another significant
feature of Regent Street.

628
00:50:42,810 --> 00:50:46,140
Between 1840 and
1916, a man called

629
00:50:46,140 --> 00:50:49,770
Charles Booth worked in London.

630
00:50:49,770 --> 00:50:54,240
He wrote a book called Life and
Labour of the People of London.

631
00:50:54,240 --> 00:51:01,110
It's 12 volumes, published
between 1891 and 1900.

632
00:51:01,110 --> 00:51:02,310
What did Booth do?

633
00:51:05,840 --> 00:51:09,780
He produced something
for the first time,

634
00:51:09,780 --> 00:51:13,520
which if you know
something about urbanism,

635
00:51:13,520 --> 00:51:16,040
would recognize immediately.

636
00:51:16,040 --> 00:51:18,840
He made a map of poverty.

637
00:51:18,840 --> 00:51:24,395
He made the first map
showing income on a plane.

638
00:51:28,220 --> 00:51:36,510
What-- Oxford Street.

639
00:51:52,820 --> 00:51:58,100
Booth's map indicates that there
are more poor people living

640
00:51:58,100 --> 00:52:02,090
on this side of Regent
Street than on this side.

641
00:52:04,960 --> 00:52:08,670
So what do you
use new roads for?

642
00:52:08,670 --> 00:52:12,450
This is what Engels
observed in Manchester.

643
00:52:12,450 --> 00:52:18,000
Roads can serve the purpose
of subdividing property.

644
00:52:18,000 --> 00:52:22,170
Land on this side is much less
valuable than on that side.

645
00:52:22,170 --> 00:52:28,920
This is where, by the way, Snow
did his experiments on cholera.

646
00:52:32,960 --> 00:52:39,830
So we learned a number of these
very little micro attributes

647
00:52:39,830 --> 00:52:45,110
of urbanism, small-scale things.

648
00:52:45,110 --> 00:52:51,150
Major revenues on one side,
a major lack of revenue

649
00:52:51,150 --> 00:52:53,330
on another side.

650
00:52:53,330 --> 00:52:56,690
Regent Street is
carefully modulated

651
00:52:56,690 --> 00:53:01,520
as Moses's highways were
in relation to land values.

652
00:53:01,520 --> 00:53:03,770
You can't build a
public road straight

653
00:53:03,770 --> 00:53:05,540
through expensive property.

654
00:53:08,940 --> 00:53:11,430
Roads can be deviated.

655
00:53:11,430 --> 00:53:17,850
Sometimes they create spatial
avenues of the great charm

656
00:53:17,850 --> 00:53:20,550
by virtue of them
twisting around.

657
00:53:20,550 --> 00:53:25,650
But the basic motivation is
not aesthetic, it's economic.

658
00:53:29,700 --> 00:53:46,370
The other great--
have we got time?

659
00:53:46,370 --> 00:53:48,620
OK.

660
00:53:48,620 --> 00:53:53,310
In the required
reading for this class,

661
00:53:53,310 --> 00:53:56,310
there was a piece which I
wrote about the instruments

662
00:53:56,310 --> 00:53:59,510
of application in
the 19th century.

663
00:54:04,210 --> 00:54:06,840
I won't have time
to go through them.

664
00:54:06,840 --> 00:54:11,410
The first is the invention
of the [INAUDIBLE] payment

665
00:54:11,410 --> 00:54:15,370
amortized building loan.

666
00:54:15,370 --> 00:54:21,400
The second is the transformation
of the building union

667
00:54:21,400 --> 00:54:25,540
and building guilds into a
permanent building society

668
00:54:25,540 --> 00:54:28,190
for the lending of money.

669
00:54:28,190 --> 00:54:32,770
The third is the transformation
of a pre-industrial guild

670
00:54:32,770 --> 00:54:39,280
of builders into a 19th-century
organization started by Thomas

671
00:54:39,280 --> 00:54:40,795
Cubitt at the age of 27.

672
00:54:44,830 --> 00:54:48,460
He employed a permanent,
year-long labor

673
00:54:48,460 --> 00:54:53,230
force as opposed to
day-long laborers

674
00:54:53,230 --> 00:54:56,540
provided by guild workers.

675
00:54:56,540 --> 00:55:02,740
He also could assume
economic risks

676
00:55:02,740 --> 00:55:05,050
and forecast the
value of property.

677
00:55:08,490 --> 00:55:12,630
He established what is
called the contracting gross.

678
00:55:12,630 --> 00:55:17,730
In times of such enormous,
fluctuating economy,

679
00:55:17,730 --> 00:55:20,880
it's difficult for
a large investor

680
00:55:20,880 --> 00:55:23,370
to predict the cost of
what he would have to pay

681
00:55:23,370 --> 00:55:26,010
at the end of the project.

682
00:55:26,010 --> 00:55:31,140
Cubitt revolutionized this by
inventing the contracting gross

683
00:55:31,140 --> 00:55:35,830
by saying to the queen, it
doesn't matter what happens.

684
00:55:35,830 --> 00:55:38,950
It's going to take 12 years
to finish this project,

685
00:55:38,950 --> 00:55:43,620
you have to pay $300 million
pounds at the end of 12 years.

686
00:55:43,620 --> 00:55:45,150
This is before--

687
00:55:45,150 --> 00:55:48,930
I mean, this is in a
time of economics--

688
00:55:48,930 --> 00:55:51,120
well, economics is
a modern science.

689
00:55:51,120 --> 00:55:54,360
It only dates, probably,
from about 1900.

690
00:55:54,360 --> 00:55:59,280
So we have Ricardo, and Marx,
and people like that, Malthus,

691
00:55:59,280 --> 00:56:01,046
who weren't much help in--

692
00:56:01,046 --> 00:56:04,770
but Cubitt understood that
the profits he could make

693
00:56:04,770 --> 00:56:06,870
by maintaining a labor force--

694
00:56:06,870 --> 00:56:12,750
again, we have Marx's
notion of surplus value.

695
00:56:12,750 --> 00:56:22,620
By having 1,000 workers, you
reap a share of the income.

696
00:56:22,620 --> 00:56:25,320
And therefore, you
become very wealthy--

697
00:56:25,320 --> 00:56:28,800
according to Marx, anyway.

698
00:56:28,800 --> 00:56:30,660
And when you are
very wealthy, you

699
00:56:30,660 --> 00:56:34,350
can take economic risks
because you know what

700
00:56:34,350 --> 00:56:37,740
you can produce at what cost.

701
00:56:45,400 --> 00:56:48,880
I've mentioned the
transformation from freehold

702
00:56:48,880 --> 00:56:51,110
to leasehold.

703
00:56:51,110 --> 00:56:56,770
The last of these
policy implications

704
00:56:56,770 --> 00:57:02,090
is the introduction or
invention of deficit spending,

705
00:57:02,090 --> 00:57:06,910
which I'll elaborate on more
when we talk about Paris.

706
00:57:06,910 --> 00:57:19,190
Paris was the first to assume
that the right of the state

707
00:57:19,190 --> 00:57:27,890
to private land was great,
was large, significant only

708
00:57:27,890 --> 00:57:36,290
to be exceptionally
reversed by private owners.

709
00:57:36,290 --> 00:57:41,480
Haussmann's property
development schemes

710
00:57:41,480 --> 00:57:46,070
were schemes based on the
notion of deficit spending,

711
00:57:46,070 --> 00:57:52,010
that the state could engage
in large amounts of capital

712
00:57:52,010 --> 00:57:55,160
deficit on the
grounds that it was

713
00:57:55,160 --> 00:57:59,030
improving the economic
condition of the site.

714
00:57:59,030 --> 00:58:03,680
And the site would,
over time, pay back.

715
00:58:03,680 --> 00:58:06,650
The fact that Haussmann's
borrowings only

716
00:58:06,650 --> 00:58:12,350
was paid back in 1928, some
75 years after Haussmann

717
00:58:12,350 --> 00:58:16,760
spent the money, is
something we'll debate

718
00:58:16,760 --> 00:58:20,420
in next Thursday's class.

719
00:58:20,420 --> 00:58:23,334
Let's look very quickly at
the idea of the railroad.

720
00:58:31,570 --> 00:58:36,820
London was the first to
introduce a train system

721
00:58:36,820 --> 00:58:41,770
into the compact center
of a city as urbanism.

722
00:58:45,180 --> 00:58:53,460
1863, the first subway ran
from on the north eastwards,

723
00:58:53,460 --> 00:58:58,410
from Paddington Station
past all of those stations,

724
00:58:58,410 --> 00:59:04,980
to the last one on the
bend, Farringdon Street.

725
00:59:07,520 --> 00:59:13,590
These were [INAUDIBLE]
conditions.

726
00:59:13,590 --> 00:59:17,450
It was only a small
indentation in the Earth.

727
00:59:17,450 --> 00:59:21,140
And the train ran
without any ventilation,

728
00:59:21,140 --> 00:59:22,335
except from the sky.

729
00:59:25,160 --> 00:59:27,260
It was enormously successful.

730
00:59:27,260 --> 00:59:34,040
There were millions--
it ran from 1873 to 1890

731
00:59:34,040 --> 00:59:37,340
regularly at
10-minute intervals.

732
00:59:37,340 --> 00:59:41,720
And I think it carried
something like a million or 10

733
00:59:41,720 --> 00:59:44,990
million people regularly.

734
00:59:44,990 --> 00:59:50,360
In 1890, the deep, old tunnel
was reintroduced largely

735
00:59:50,360 --> 00:59:56,000
by an American
financier, Mr. Sprague.

736
00:59:56,000 --> 01:00:03,710
And that set the pattern for the
building of a complete subway

737
01:00:03,710 --> 01:00:10,490
system, almost complete in 1900.

738
01:00:10,490 --> 01:00:12,560
I saw an estimate
of what it would

739
01:00:12,560 --> 01:00:15,860
cost for a contemporary city
to build this, the London

740
01:00:15,860 --> 01:00:17,540
Underground system.

741
01:00:17,540 --> 01:00:22,310
And there's not enough money,
not enough capital in the world

742
01:00:22,310 --> 01:00:23,680
to pay for it.

743
01:00:23,680 --> 01:00:25,430
Of course, that's
an exaggeration.

744
01:00:25,430 --> 01:00:27,230
There is enough capital.

745
01:00:27,230 --> 01:00:32,810
But it's beyond the
reach of any living city.

746
01:00:32,810 --> 01:00:37,250
The British were very clever in
investing in the sewage system

747
01:00:37,250 --> 01:00:40,310
and in the public
transportation system.

748
01:00:40,310 --> 01:00:46,160
They coupled the
inner circumstances,

749
01:00:46,160 --> 01:00:51,950
with various colored lines,
with the suburban system,

750
01:00:51,950 --> 01:00:55,790
which connected to the
outside, as yet relatively

751
01:00:55,790 --> 01:00:58,865
unbuilt villages and towns.

752
01:01:03,610 --> 01:01:07,420
There's a lot of details to be
discussed around the building

753
01:01:07,420 --> 01:01:09,370
of the subway systems.

754
01:01:09,370 --> 01:01:11,920
There was enormous
costs involved

755
01:01:11,920 --> 01:01:16,810
in getting some
of these stations.

756
01:01:16,810 --> 01:01:20,560
For instance, one writer
suggested that he took--

757
01:01:24,935 --> 01:01:25,435
yeah.

758
01:01:30,430 --> 01:01:32,320
The London and
Birmingham railway,

759
01:01:32,320 --> 01:01:35,890
from the Midlands to Lord
Southampton's Euston station--

760
01:01:40,220 --> 01:01:43,160
the railroad failed to
persuade the bid for the estate

761
01:01:43,160 --> 01:01:45,620
to allow it any further.

762
01:01:45,620 --> 01:01:48,950
It took an army of
20,000 men to construct

763
01:01:48,950 --> 01:01:51,410
and was probably the
largest public work ever

764
01:01:51,410 --> 01:01:54,830
to be undertaken in the
whole history of man

765
01:01:54,830 --> 01:02:01,190
with the possible exception
of the Great Wall of China.

766
01:02:01,190 --> 01:02:04,850
Digging this underground
tunnel in order

767
01:02:04,850 --> 01:02:09,140
that Euston could get
to Marylebone high road

768
01:02:09,140 --> 01:02:12,950
and be part of the
central combination--

769
01:02:12,950 --> 01:02:17,750
11 million passengers in
the first year, and so on.

770
01:02:22,580 --> 01:02:24,350
To leave us time
to look at this,

771
01:02:24,350 --> 01:02:29,840
I'm going to shorten the last
part of this investigation.

772
01:02:29,840 --> 01:02:34,115
Let's simply say
one or two things.

773
01:02:39,350 --> 01:02:43,340
From the provision of
housing for the poorer

774
01:02:43,340 --> 01:02:49,590
part of the population
to the state

775
01:02:49,590 --> 01:02:56,000
accepting some role, a
major role in its care,

776
01:02:56,000 --> 01:03:01,760
it was a variety of moves,
largely through charity

777
01:03:01,760 --> 01:03:04,330
and philanthropy.

778
01:03:04,330 --> 01:03:06,320
There was the
Octavia Hill system.

779
01:03:06,320 --> 01:03:09,350
There was philanthropy for 5%.

780
01:03:09,350 --> 01:03:11,510
Everybody assumed
that philanthropy

781
01:03:11,510 --> 01:03:14,450
had to provide a profit.

782
01:03:14,450 --> 01:03:18,500
There was the
Octavia Hill system.

783
01:03:18,500 --> 01:03:23,330
There were arguments that
the poor needed resuscitation

784
01:03:23,330 --> 01:03:28,580
through avoiding alcohol,
through temperance

785
01:03:28,580 --> 01:03:32,240
associations, through
teaching the Octavia Hill

786
01:03:32,240 --> 01:03:36,050
system to teaching them
how to behave properly,

787
01:03:36,050 --> 01:03:41,940
how to save money, how to be
proficient with their time--

788
01:03:41,940 --> 01:03:44,720
in fact, how to be
modern citizens.

789
01:03:44,720 --> 01:03:49,010
The British aristocracy
assumed that it

790
01:03:49,010 --> 01:03:53,960
could do for Engels's
Manchester just

791
01:03:53,960 --> 01:04:00,470
through its own generosity,
plus a 5% fee for Americans

792
01:04:00,470 --> 01:04:06,320
who invested in some of these
philanthropic organizations.

793
01:04:06,320 --> 01:04:12,100
In 1889, the London County
Council was established.

794
01:04:12,100 --> 01:04:18,110
The London County Council
became the first state or city

795
01:04:18,110 --> 01:04:23,850
organization for the planning
and maintenance of the built

796
01:04:23,850 --> 01:04:26,060
city.

797
01:04:26,060 --> 01:04:27,320
It was remarkable.

798
01:04:30,830 --> 01:04:36,560
It employed the highest
level of professional skill

799
01:04:36,560 --> 01:04:39,800
that it could find,
people who were

800
01:04:39,800 --> 01:04:42,980
great architects
like James Stirling,

801
01:04:42,980 --> 01:04:46,280
others worked for the
London County Council

802
01:04:46,280 --> 01:04:50,030
before branching
off on their own.

803
01:04:50,030 --> 01:05:00,130
The standard of public housing
has not been challenged.

804
01:05:00,130 --> 01:05:02,950
In 1965, the London
County Council

805
01:05:02,950 --> 01:05:06,940
was abolished by
Margaret Thatcher

806
01:05:06,940 --> 01:05:10,870
and became the
Greater London Council

807
01:05:10,870 --> 01:05:12,760
with a different position.

808
01:05:12,760 --> 01:05:17,470
But the great years of
the London County Council,

809
01:05:17,470 --> 01:05:22,660
a very left-wing organization--

810
01:05:22,660 --> 01:05:25,150
one of the architects
who worked--

811
01:05:25,150 --> 01:05:29,470
I remember flying
from the Far East

812
01:05:29,470 --> 01:05:33,700
with this gentleman, who was a
well-known architect in London,

813
01:05:33,700 --> 01:05:37,720
who told me of his first
week working in London County

814
01:05:37,720 --> 01:05:43,000
Council, of being taken to a
pub on the Friday afternoon

815
01:05:43,000 --> 01:05:46,390
and asked whether he
was a socialist or not.

816
01:05:46,390 --> 01:05:51,370
And he had to pass the test by
answering a bunch of questions.

817
01:05:57,040 --> 01:06:03,050
Are there any questions about
this incredibly brief survey

818
01:06:03,050 --> 01:06:06,250
one of the world's great cities?

819
01:06:06,250 --> 01:06:09,700
I apologize for doing
it in the only way I

820
01:06:09,700 --> 01:06:11,860
can think of doing
it, and that's

821
01:06:11,860 --> 01:06:13,750
to pick on some characteristics.

822
01:06:17,020 --> 01:06:20,020
There are some very
good books and London.

823
01:06:20,020 --> 01:06:22,470
Landlords to London
is a good book.

824
01:06:22,470 --> 01:06:26,260
There are a number of
others for those of you

825
01:06:26,260 --> 01:06:30,260
who want to examine the
thing in greater detail.

826
01:06:35,685 --> 01:06:38,910
But let's discuss.

827
01:06:38,910 --> 01:06:42,300
We're talking about 1824, 1830.

828
01:06:42,300 --> 01:06:45,050
Engels is writing a
book in Manchester.

829
01:06:47,615 --> 01:06:48,990
We're talking
about the Enclosure

830
01:06:48,990 --> 01:06:54,420
Acts, all of the penalties
imposed on the emergent working

831
01:06:54,420 --> 01:06:55,800
class.

832
01:06:55,800 --> 01:06:59,610
Slowly, the emergent
working class

833
01:06:59,610 --> 01:07:03,600
gains a foothold in
the British democracy

834
01:07:03,600 --> 01:07:07,710
and sets off 100 years.

835
01:07:10,425 --> 01:07:14,820
And the 100 years produces
all of these things--

836
01:07:14,820 --> 01:07:21,560
the first railway train,
underground, the first building

837
01:07:21,560 --> 01:07:26,570
bylaws, rescuing
and transforming

838
01:07:26,570 --> 01:07:31,910
a city from a completely
different environment,

839
01:07:31,910 --> 01:07:35,180
in some respects,
from the conditions

840
01:07:35,180 --> 01:07:39,890
that Engels expressed in the
condition of the working class.

841
01:07:43,180 --> 01:07:45,700
There was no central state.

842
01:07:45,700 --> 01:07:51,700
Well, there were many things
that the Soviet revolution

843
01:07:51,700 --> 01:07:55,300
offered which the British
government didn't offer.

844
01:07:55,300 --> 01:08:01,150
But a completely
remarkable Renaissance--

845
01:08:01,150 --> 01:08:07,000
and that with, as I repeat,
only the killing of 11 or 13

846
01:08:07,000 --> 01:08:13,480
citizens over 125
years, 123 years,

847
01:08:13,480 --> 01:08:20,439
from Peterloo to Bloody
Sunday in Northern Ireland.

848
01:08:20,439 --> 01:08:22,060
I think it's a remarkable--

849
01:08:24,779 --> 01:08:29,210
it's a remarkable story for
those interested in the effects

850
01:08:29,210 --> 01:08:36,484
that good action and technology
can take on urban form.

851
01:08:39,050 --> 01:08:44,960
Here's the Roman crossing
on the east towards what

852
01:08:44,960 --> 01:08:47,569
became the city of London.

853
01:08:47,569 --> 01:08:51,740
Here, the minimal
fortifications.

854
01:08:51,740 --> 01:08:54,710
The monastery's located
on the outside ring,

855
01:08:54,710 --> 01:09:01,130
close to the walls in
case there's some crisis.

856
01:09:01,130 --> 01:09:07,784
The monastery can send its
people to maintain the wall.

857
01:09:07,784 --> 01:09:08,284
Next.

858
01:09:12,279 --> 01:09:17,950
The Fire, the devastation of
the eastern part of the city.

859
01:09:20,630 --> 01:09:25,090
[INAUDIBLE] plan on the
top, the diagonalization

860
01:09:25,090 --> 01:09:30,850
and the centralisation
of the Royal Exchange.

861
01:09:30,850 --> 01:09:35,590
Evelyn's scheme or [INAUDIBLE]
scheme, neither of which

862
01:09:35,590 --> 01:09:37,849
gained much mileage.

863
01:09:37,849 --> 01:09:38,349
Next.

864
01:09:43,590 --> 01:09:51,060
Five and two combined,
virtually, the west of London.

865
01:09:51,060 --> 01:09:55,020
This is Mary Davis,
whom I spoke about.

866
01:09:55,020 --> 01:09:58,000
I don't know who took
this picture of her.

867
01:09:58,000 --> 01:09:58,500
Next.

868
01:10:02,670 --> 01:10:11,800
This is the pattern of
estate subdivisions.

869
01:10:11,800 --> 01:10:14,820
And see the big gap on the left?

870
01:10:14,820 --> 01:10:17,610
It is the Crown Regent's Park.

871
01:10:17,610 --> 01:10:21,305
And the north is the crown.

872
01:10:21,305 --> 01:10:25,980
A figure ground pattern
of the west of London,

873
01:10:25,980 --> 01:10:32,160
indicating the black squares
aerating this fabric.

874
01:10:32,160 --> 01:10:34,950
And the condition
of Regent's Park

875
01:10:34,950 --> 01:10:39,330
is drawing the line from
Regent's Park on the north

876
01:10:39,330 --> 01:10:42,750
Regent Street,
finding its way down

877
01:10:42,750 --> 01:10:46,500
to the crown
property on the west.

878
01:10:46,500 --> 01:10:48,515
Next.

879
01:10:48,515 --> 01:10:49,015
OK.

880
01:10:53,580 --> 01:10:57,060
Here are four examples.

881
01:10:57,060 --> 01:11:02,670
This is the original
square, 1631.

882
01:11:02,670 --> 01:11:09,010
The [INAUDIBLE] and the
elevation of Inigo Jones

883
01:11:09,010 --> 01:11:14,030
and the proposed arcades and
surrounding of the square.

884
01:11:14,030 --> 01:11:22,570
The square has a large empty
center like the Place Royale.

885
01:11:22,570 --> 01:11:31,855
And it's indicated in the first
of these four, up on the left.

886
01:11:36,390 --> 01:11:40,930
St. James Square on the right,
you see the enclosed garden.

887
01:11:40,930 --> 01:11:44,970
The entrances are
carefully selected.

888
01:11:44,970 --> 01:11:49,425
There's a monument to end the
vista from two of the streets.

889
01:11:56,460 --> 01:12:00,900
The Bedford square
on the top right,

890
01:12:00,900 --> 01:12:04,470
1773, where you
get the manor house

891
01:12:04,470 --> 01:12:07,860
in the center of the elevation.

892
01:12:07,860 --> 01:12:12,540
Here, the street system
is not so carefully

893
01:12:12,540 --> 01:12:16,920
considered in relation to
the design of the square.

894
01:12:16,920 --> 01:12:23,600
And here, Belgrave
Square, now an attempt

895
01:12:23,600 --> 01:12:26,090
to break the mold of
the Georgian square

896
01:12:26,090 --> 01:12:30,800
by putting the manor houses
outside the main elevation,

897
01:12:30,800 --> 01:12:34,220
in the four corners,
opening the square.

898
01:12:34,220 --> 01:12:36,140
This is not a gated square.

899
01:12:36,140 --> 01:12:43,190
This is now a public square,
although treed, secondary manor

900
01:12:43,190 --> 01:12:45,560
houses in the center
of the facade.

901
01:12:48,080 --> 01:12:50,110
Next.

902
01:12:50,110 --> 01:13:03,664
Grosvenor Square on the
right, the manor house

903
01:13:03,664 --> 01:13:07,110
with the gabled facade in
the center of the facade.

904
01:13:11,405 --> 01:13:11,905
Next.

905
01:13:14,470 --> 01:13:16,300
OK.

906
01:13:16,300 --> 01:13:18,640
We could have many
more illustrations

907
01:13:18,640 --> 01:13:24,010
of these squares, the whole idea
of being able to link the crown

908
01:13:24,010 --> 01:13:28,750
property in Regent's
Park systematically

909
01:13:28,750 --> 01:13:34,915
through to Green Park
in Buckingham Palace.

910
01:13:38,200 --> 01:13:42,880
The number of intersecting
roads and the degree

911
01:13:42,880 --> 01:13:46,885
of the difficulty
of purchasing what

912
01:13:46,885 --> 01:13:51,230
was cheap land and property
on either sides of the road.

913
01:13:51,230 --> 01:13:51,730
Next.

914
01:13:58,970 --> 01:14:03,260
This is looking up, northwards,
to All Souls' Church.

915
01:14:03,260 --> 01:14:08,570
What you see is that
spin-wheel of an arcade

916
01:14:08,570 --> 01:14:12,990
to turn you to the northwest.

917
01:14:12,990 --> 01:14:13,490
Next.

918
01:14:16,810 --> 01:14:22,930
Booth's map-- here
is Regent Street

919
01:14:22,930 --> 01:14:27,850
in the quadrant leading
to Piccadilly Circus.

920
01:14:27,850 --> 01:14:34,150
Look at the black and gray areas
to the right of Regent Street,

921
01:14:34,150 --> 01:14:39,925
and the almost totally dark
red environment on the left.

922
01:14:43,450 --> 01:14:46,035
It's another one
of Booths mapping.

923
01:14:46,035 --> 01:14:48,115
That's of pubs.

924
01:14:52,870 --> 01:14:58,900
British [INAUDIBLE] gin until
they stopped drinking gin

925
01:14:58,900 --> 01:15:04,000
and started drinking
tea are regarded as--

926
01:15:04,000 --> 01:15:06,925
cited in one of the
demographies of London.

927
01:15:09,970 --> 01:15:11,440
It's a startling map.

928
01:15:18,600 --> 01:15:26,910
It's one of the first attempts
to connect social status

929
01:15:26,910 --> 01:15:29,980
with built form.

930
01:15:29,980 --> 01:15:30,480
Next.

931
01:15:34,166 --> 01:15:41,050
A 4-by-1-and-1/2 square,
Sir Joseph Paxton,

932
01:15:41,050 --> 01:15:46,420
after the Crystal Palace,
proposed an elevated walking

933
01:15:46,420 --> 01:15:51,940
route around the
4-by-1-and-1/2-mile center

934
01:15:51,940 --> 01:15:53,150
of the city.

935
01:15:53,150 --> 01:15:57,640
You can see this, all the
railway lines from the north,

936
01:15:57,640 --> 01:16:06,430
from Paddington to
King's Cross, serving

937
01:16:06,430 --> 01:16:10,540
the north, industry to
north, and the three stations

938
01:16:10,540 --> 01:16:13,120
on the south--

939
01:16:13,120 --> 01:16:20,080
Waterloo, Victoria, and Charing
Cross, essentially serving.

940
01:16:20,080 --> 01:16:27,550
And the British-- the
subway system in the center,

941
01:16:27,550 --> 01:16:32,950
moving outwards and then
connecting to a suburban

942
01:16:32,950 --> 01:16:40,240
railroad system, a remarkable
application of public

943
01:16:40,240 --> 01:16:44,410
transportation
technology as early as--

944
01:16:44,410 --> 01:16:48,800
prior to the 20th century.

945
01:16:48,800 --> 01:16:49,300
Next.

946
01:16:55,230 --> 01:17:00,840
Building the metropolitan line
on the left, the upper one,

947
01:17:00,840 --> 01:17:05,550
crossing the River Thames
with the train on the left,

948
01:17:05,550 --> 01:17:13,200
the embankment of
the sewage system

949
01:17:13,200 --> 01:17:18,145
and the new sewer
lines on the right.

950
01:17:18,145 --> 01:17:18,645
Next.

951
01:17:21,210 --> 01:17:24,240
Marylebone and Euston
Street being the facades

952
01:17:24,240 --> 01:17:27,180
of these great railway termini.

953
01:17:27,180 --> 01:17:32,260
Now, the railway termini
were ambiguous in themselves.

954
01:17:32,260 --> 01:17:36,900
They were urban manifestations
with pronounced facades,

955
01:17:36,900 --> 01:17:44,760
and hotels, and enormous
formal energy expended in order

956
01:17:44,760 --> 01:17:49,260
that you should penetrate
this railway station--

957
01:17:49,260 --> 01:17:52,800
which, after all, is just
a technological feat,

958
01:17:52,800 --> 01:17:56,220
just a train and a railway
line, and some toilets,

959
01:17:56,220 --> 01:17:56,970
and ticket booths.

960
01:17:59,520 --> 01:18:01,830
It doesn't require
[LAUGHS] this apparatus

961
01:18:01,830 --> 01:18:07,850
in the front unless you're
conscious of the city.

962
01:18:07,850 --> 01:18:10,530
I like a city which
pays attention

963
01:18:10,530 --> 01:18:13,350
to places of public
significance,

964
01:18:13,350 --> 01:18:15,974
even if it there's
only a toilet behind.

965
01:18:15,974 --> 01:18:17,412
AUDIENCE: [LAUGHS]

966
01:18:17,412 --> 01:18:18,870
JULIAN BEINART: I
wish our airports

967
01:18:18,870 --> 01:18:22,890
had some way of galvanizing
their presence in the city.

968
01:18:22,890 --> 01:18:27,220
They are little
technological nightmares.

969
01:18:27,220 --> 01:18:27,720
Next.

970
01:18:31,010 --> 01:18:36,005
Charing Cross and St Pancras
Station being built. Next.

971
01:18:39,930 --> 01:18:45,540
Behind this neoclassical
Victorian facade

972
01:18:45,540 --> 01:18:49,590
lies the technological
enterprise.

973
01:18:49,590 --> 01:18:51,660
This is Birmingham
on the right, which

974
01:18:51,660 --> 01:18:56,010
was the largest single span
at the time in the world, St

975
01:18:56,010 --> 01:18:57,330
Pancras on the left.

976
01:18:59,875 --> 01:19:00,375
Next.

977
01:19:03,550 --> 01:19:10,300
Attempts to indulge in this
internal space of the railway

978
01:19:10,300 --> 01:19:14,200
station with the same grandeur
that the external facade

979
01:19:14,200 --> 01:19:15,665
on the street has.

980
01:19:15,665 --> 01:19:16,165
Next.

981
01:19:21,690 --> 01:19:27,360
Victoria Station in England,
something of a market,

982
01:19:27,360 --> 01:19:33,190
Munich being a taking
over of the center

983
01:19:33,190 --> 01:19:36,865
of the station as a market.

984
01:19:36,865 --> 01:19:37,365
Next.

985
01:19:40,330 --> 01:19:45,550
Victoria Station
in Mumbai, designed

986
01:19:45,550 --> 01:19:50,680
with the same atmospheric
aesthetic impulse

987
01:19:50,680 --> 01:19:55,150
to pronounce itself as a
major monument in the city.

988
01:19:55,150 --> 01:19:58,690
And then inside, the
social consequences

989
01:19:58,690 --> 01:20:03,310
of poverty displaying itself.

990
01:20:03,310 --> 01:20:09,910
These two images, this and
the technological center,

991
01:20:09,910 --> 01:20:12,590
are interesting in themselves.

992
01:20:12,590 --> 01:20:13,090
Next.

993
01:20:17,180 --> 01:20:23,790
Here is another attribute
of the charity world.

994
01:20:23,790 --> 01:20:25,650
This is a working--

995
01:20:25,650 --> 01:20:35,650
a poor man's labor workstation
where people don't have work

996
01:20:35,650 --> 01:20:42,550
and are just left to be
fed and looked after,

997
01:20:42,550 --> 01:20:46,270
what the equivalent would be
today of a homeless shelter.

998
01:20:46,270 --> 01:20:52,510
On the right is a new
charity-inspired labor station.

999
01:20:52,510 --> 01:20:56,350
Now, instead of the
rough, random allocation

1000
01:20:56,350 --> 01:21:01,840
of people in space, everybody
is now subdivided into booths.

1001
01:21:01,840 --> 01:21:05,500
And God is Holy and God
is Right in the beams.

1002
01:21:05,500 --> 01:21:09,490
The technology and theology
are mixed together.

1003
01:21:09,490 --> 01:21:12,400
If you can make a
beautiful place,

1004
01:21:12,400 --> 01:21:15,700
God must be able to
be celebrated in it.

1005
01:21:15,700 --> 01:21:20,665
It's making of poverty
a religious artifact.

1006
01:21:20,665 --> 01:21:21,165
Next.

1007
01:21:23,730 --> 01:21:28,680
And the greatest manifestation
of the technology--

1008
01:21:28,680 --> 01:21:30,810
the technology in
the Crystal Palace

1009
01:21:30,810 --> 01:21:35,220
is without any
pertinence in the front.

1010
01:21:35,220 --> 01:21:38,280
There is no attempt
to make an entrance.

1011
01:21:38,280 --> 01:21:42,060
This is just a
space for thousands

1012
01:21:42,060 --> 01:21:46,440
of people to come and see what
the British are doing in India.

1013
01:21:46,440 --> 01:21:48,010
There are trees inside.

1014
01:21:48,010 --> 01:21:48,510
Next.

1015
01:21:51,780 --> 01:21:58,170
Modernism, modern
inventions are portrayed.

1016
01:21:58,170 --> 01:22:06,900
One wants to compare
this to 1893 in Chicago.

1017
01:22:06,900 --> 01:22:09,231
This was 1851.

1018
01:22:09,231 --> 01:22:14,710
50 years later, the same attempt
was attempted in Chicago.

1019
01:22:14,710 --> 01:22:16,920
And we'll compare the two.

1020
01:22:16,920 --> 01:22:19,660
Next.

1021
01:22:19,660 --> 01:22:25,500
That's the story of London, as
briefly as I can explain it.