1 00:00:00,000 --> 00:00:02,520 The following content is provided under a Creative 2 00:00:02,520 --> 00:00:03,970 Commons license. 3 00:00:03,970 --> 00:00:06,360 Your support will help MIT OpenCourseWare 4 00:00:06,360 --> 00:00:10,660 continue to offer high quality educational resources for free. 5 00:00:10,660 --> 00:00:13,350 To make a donation or view additional materials 6 00:00:13,350 --> 00:00:17,190 from hundreds of MIT courses, visit MIT OpenCourseWare 7 00:00:17,190 --> 00:00:18,320 at ocw.mit.edu. 8 00:00:25,890 --> 00:00:29,190 JULIAN BEINART: I like just having you understand 9 00:00:29,190 --> 00:00:31,290 that if you really want to understand anything 10 00:00:31,290 --> 00:00:34,200 about cities, you have to immerse yourself 11 00:00:34,200 --> 00:00:39,280 in the vast, vast amount of material. 12 00:00:39,280 --> 00:00:42,096 Now seriously, it's a joke. 13 00:00:42,096 --> 00:00:45,255 [LAUGHTER] 14 00:00:46,180 --> 00:00:52,260 The class on Tuesday referred to a number of theories 15 00:00:52,260 --> 00:00:55,860 which I didn't have much time to expand on. 16 00:00:55,860 --> 00:01:03,900 For those of you interested, the reading on the sheet 17 00:01:03,900 --> 00:01:08,940 I gave you is available and worthwhile 18 00:01:08,940 --> 00:01:11,970 looking at if you're at all interested in expanding 19 00:01:11,970 --> 00:01:14,520 beyond what we did on Tuesday. 20 00:01:18,510 --> 00:01:22,550 This is supposed to be an advanced class. 21 00:01:22,550 --> 00:01:26,810 There's a prerequisite before you can take this class. 22 00:01:26,810 --> 00:01:34,565 And yet the field is such that so much of this material 23 00:01:34,565 --> 00:01:40,820 [INAUDIBLE] is the first time you've encountered it. 24 00:01:40,820 --> 00:01:44,590 So I work on the basis of those of you 25 00:01:44,590 --> 00:01:50,480 who want to pursue more have available at least 26 00:01:50,480 --> 00:01:53,760 some direction which to travel. 27 00:01:53,760 --> 00:01:56,360 So the sheet is really the direction 28 00:01:56,360 --> 00:02:00,890 in which you might travel if you want to explore anything 29 00:02:00,890 --> 00:02:07,280 from [INAUDIBLE] text to the work of other theorists. 30 00:02:07,280 --> 00:02:10,030 OK, we switch gears completely now. 31 00:02:15,260 --> 00:02:19,270 We are on to the serious material. 32 00:02:19,270 --> 00:02:24,170 The first part of this class is really just to warm you up, 33 00:02:24,170 --> 00:02:28,730 to make you understand something about urban history, 34 00:02:28,730 --> 00:02:34,490 and to give you a superficial grasp of what 35 00:02:34,490 --> 00:02:37,250 theories about the form of cities might mean. 36 00:02:39,940 --> 00:02:44,560 The second part of this glass deals more meticulously 37 00:02:44,560 --> 00:02:47,330 with particular items in cities. 38 00:02:50,620 --> 00:02:55,930 It starts off with a review of industrialization. 39 00:03:00,550 --> 00:03:05,560 Some historians claim that there have been three momentous times 40 00:03:05,560 --> 00:03:08,320 in human history-- 41 00:03:08,320 --> 00:03:10,510 something in the neolithic period, 42 00:03:10,510 --> 00:03:15,850 something in the post-religion period of the Enlightenment, 43 00:03:15,850 --> 00:03:19,150 and the Industrial Revolution. 44 00:03:19,150 --> 00:03:24,610 Nothing in my mind contests with the Industrial Revolution. 45 00:03:24,610 --> 00:03:32,740 And in a sense, except for your own education, 46 00:03:32,740 --> 00:03:37,870 anything prior to the period from 1750 onwards 47 00:03:37,870 --> 00:03:39,770 is irrelevant. 48 00:03:39,770 --> 00:03:43,690 I know it's a stupid thing to say but I'll say it again. 49 00:03:43,690 --> 00:03:49,840 From this class' point of view, we start at 1750. 50 00:03:49,840 --> 00:03:54,220 And today, we will try to understand 51 00:03:54,220 --> 00:03:57,190 a very complex phenomenon, the phenomenon 52 00:03:57,190 --> 00:04:04,480 [INAUDIBLE] which increased almost 53 00:04:04,480 --> 00:04:08,780 every aspect of human life, particularly in England. 54 00:04:08,780 --> 00:04:11,086 Why in England? 55 00:04:11,086 --> 00:04:14,830 [HEAVY SIGH] Enough theorists have tried 56 00:04:14,830 --> 00:04:16,344 to understand why in England. 57 00:04:20,970 --> 00:04:26,100 I referred you in the reading to a book by-- 58 00:04:26,100 --> 00:04:29,400 a recent book by a man called Clark 59 00:04:29,400 --> 00:04:34,080 from the West Coast university, University of California 60 00:04:34,080 --> 00:04:36,030 in Davis, I think. 61 00:04:36,030 --> 00:04:38,820 The book is called A Farewell to Arms. 62 00:04:41,370 --> 00:04:46,500 Did you find any interesting ideas in that book? 63 00:04:46,500 --> 00:04:47,125 Let me explain. 64 00:04:51,870 --> 00:04:54,120 The Industrial Revolution, as I was 65 00:04:54,120 --> 00:04:56,790 confronted with it is a high school student 66 00:04:56,790 --> 00:05:00,630 and then at university, was a set 67 00:05:00,630 --> 00:05:06,300 of events by people, individuals, 68 00:05:06,300 --> 00:05:17,430 who transformed the built world, from Telford in Newcastle 69 00:05:17,430 --> 00:05:20,115 using steel to-- 70 00:05:23,110 --> 00:05:29,580 not Telford-- sorry, Stephenson in Newcastle, learning how to-- 71 00:05:29,580 --> 00:05:35,070 teaching us how to industrialize the railroad. 72 00:05:35,070 --> 00:05:44,820 McAdam, from which we learn how to pave roads. 73 00:05:44,820 --> 00:05:47,760 From 1901, the first British census, 74 00:05:47,760 --> 00:05:53,400 we learned the value of establishing a uniform system 75 00:05:53,400 --> 00:05:56,910 for counting how many people are in the nation. 76 00:05:56,910 --> 00:05:59,400 The penny postage stamp-- 77 00:05:59,400 --> 00:06:06,540 the first stamp which allowed communication by mail 78 00:06:06,540 --> 00:06:11,970 in a systematic manner, and so on and on and on and on and on 79 00:06:11,970 --> 00:06:14,040 and on and on. 80 00:06:14,040 --> 00:06:15,650 Nobody explains why it happened. 81 00:06:18,670 --> 00:06:22,740 The theory is the genius of human beings 82 00:06:22,740 --> 00:06:29,160 all lumped together changed the British landscape. 83 00:06:29,160 --> 00:06:32,100 However, we can't be that naive. 84 00:06:32,100 --> 00:06:35,520 We have to ask ourselves deeper questions, 85 00:06:35,520 --> 00:06:38,880 because these changes are serious 86 00:06:38,880 --> 00:06:41,610 and affected the world in significant ways. 87 00:06:46,500 --> 00:06:56,000 Clark's book argues that, in a crude sense, 88 00:06:56,000 --> 00:07:04,100 the world in England in 1200 was a world securing property, 89 00:07:04,100 --> 00:07:12,680 free trade, all of the basic economic conditions 90 00:07:12,680 --> 00:07:19,860 which initiative could take place. 91 00:07:19,860 --> 00:07:22,310 In fact, [INAUDIBLE] a table in the book, if you ever 92 00:07:22,310 --> 00:07:31,780 read the book, which compares 1200 England with 2000 England 93 00:07:31,780 --> 00:07:38,230 and shows the metaconditions were the same. 94 00:07:38,230 --> 00:07:42,670 What he argues of, which is novel in this argument 95 00:07:42,670 --> 00:07:49,230 about the Industrial Revolution, that there 96 00:07:49,230 --> 00:07:54,060 was a transmission, either culturally or biogenetically, 97 00:07:54,060 --> 00:07:59,880 from the wealthy, who had bigger families 98 00:07:59,880 --> 00:08:06,150 and who lived longer, through a downward mobility 99 00:08:06,150 --> 00:08:08,190 to the rest of the population. 100 00:08:10,920 --> 00:08:18,190 And he cites a number of conditions, 101 00:08:18,190 --> 00:08:27,910 having examined the wills of people from 1200 to 1800. 102 00:08:27,910 --> 00:08:32,780 He derives a number of conclusions-- 103 00:08:32,780 --> 00:08:38,789 that the world changed for the people en masse. 104 00:08:38,789 --> 00:08:40,890 Interest rates fell. 105 00:08:40,890 --> 00:08:43,530 Murder rates declined. 106 00:08:43,530 --> 00:08:45,120 Work hours increased. 107 00:08:49,220 --> 00:08:50,870 Taste for violence declined. 108 00:08:55,530 --> 00:09:00,930 Education spread to the lower classes. 109 00:09:00,930 --> 00:09:02,640 And savings increased. 110 00:09:05,520 --> 00:09:08,340 In the handout today, I gave you a review. 111 00:09:08,340 --> 00:09:11,340 There have been many reviews of this book-- 112 00:09:11,340 --> 00:09:14,170 some arguing with it, some saying it's nonsense, 113 00:09:14,170 --> 00:09:15,900 some saying it has some basis. 114 00:09:15,900 --> 00:09:22,200 But Clark has not concluded that it's biogenetic or cultural 115 00:09:22,200 --> 00:09:25,370 or how the transmission actually took place. 116 00:09:28,850 --> 00:09:32,450 What is powerful about his argument is that it's new. 117 00:09:32,450 --> 00:09:35,230 It's fresh. 118 00:09:35,230 --> 00:09:41,875 It's much more vigorous than previous examples. 119 00:09:46,270 --> 00:09:47,995 The taste for violence declined. 120 00:09:51,830 --> 00:10:02,990 In 1851, boxing was conditioned by weight. 121 00:10:05,570 --> 00:10:09,230 In medieval boxing, a big man seven 122 00:10:09,230 --> 00:10:12,360 foot tall, boxed somebody three foot tall. 123 00:10:12,360 --> 00:10:14,184 And everybody laughed. 124 00:10:14,184 --> 00:10:19,940 [LAUGHTER] I will cite you, when we talk about Paris, 125 00:10:19,940 --> 00:10:24,545 about the burning of cats in public space to amuse people. 126 00:10:28,190 --> 00:10:31,970 The tradition of beating up animals through cockfighting, 127 00:10:31,970 --> 00:10:38,450 bullfighting, and so on declined and was 128 00:10:38,450 --> 00:10:42,740 replaced by a rationalized form of sport. 129 00:10:42,740 --> 00:10:47,450 Manchester United was formed as a club in 1878. 130 00:10:47,450 --> 00:10:51,470 Today it's the wealthiest sporting franchise 131 00:10:51,470 --> 00:10:53,930 in the world. 132 00:10:53,930 --> 00:10:58,640 Manchester, where Engels wrote The Condition of the Working 133 00:10:58,640 --> 00:11:02,630 Class in England, was hardly the site, according to Engels, 134 00:11:02,630 --> 00:11:07,610 for the emergence of a $100 billion sports franchise. 135 00:11:14,770 --> 00:11:16,465 Taste for violence declined. 136 00:11:20,590 --> 00:11:25,840 How do you explain how a taste for violence can be-- 137 00:11:25,840 --> 00:11:28,810 this country, at the moment, is engaged 138 00:11:28,810 --> 00:11:31,690 in trying to deal with what we could only 139 00:11:31,690 --> 00:11:38,240 call a culture of violence, in which violence seems 140 00:11:38,240 --> 00:11:43,160 to be built into the grain of the society 141 00:11:43,160 --> 00:11:46,160 in a way which is difficult to understand 142 00:11:46,160 --> 00:11:48,260 and difficult to do something about. 143 00:11:51,550 --> 00:11:53,500 How do these changes take place? 144 00:11:53,500 --> 00:11:55,600 And how aware were those of us who 145 00:11:55,600 --> 00:12:00,760 were preoccupied with making decisions for people 146 00:12:00,760 --> 00:12:03,370 about the cities they live in? 147 00:12:03,370 --> 00:12:07,960 How do we understand these cultural shifts? 148 00:12:07,960 --> 00:12:09,700 I grew up as a modernist. 149 00:12:12,580 --> 00:12:15,460 When I look at the work I did as a student, 150 00:12:15,460 --> 00:12:20,130 both in architecture and in city planning, I'm embarrassed. 151 00:12:20,130 --> 00:12:22,360 The culture in which I worked was 152 00:12:22,360 --> 00:12:26,250 very different from the one in which you work now. 153 00:12:33,220 --> 00:12:35,410 We can only understand-- 154 00:12:35,410 --> 00:12:38,200 and I'm not going to deal extensively 155 00:12:38,200 --> 00:12:43,250 with societal changes in this period in England. 156 00:12:43,250 --> 00:12:45,430 I'm only going to deal with them when 157 00:12:45,430 --> 00:12:50,730 they affect some notion about the built form of places. 158 00:12:50,730 --> 00:12:55,600 Otherwise, we'd be here, and I'm incompetent to give you 159 00:12:55,600 --> 00:13:01,700 a very good background in 19th century English history. 160 00:13:01,700 --> 00:13:04,330 I'm just going to pick on certain coincidences 161 00:13:04,330 --> 00:13:05,650 and events. 162 00:13:14,144 --> 00:13:23,310 For instance, Peterloo was a gathering of protesters 163 00:13:23,310 --> 00:13:26,610 in Liverpool, I think it was, just 164 00:13:26,610 --> 00:13:30,660 after the British won the great battle against Napoleon 165 00:13:30,660 --> 00:13:32,970 in Waterloo. 166 00:13:32,970 --> 00:13:40,130 11 Englishmen were killed by the police and the military. 167 00:13:40,130 --> 00:13:48,270 152 years later, 13 Englishmen-- actually, Catholic Irish-- 168 00:13:48,270 --> 00:13:52,020 were killed by the British police and military. 169 00:13:52,020 --> 00:13:57,780 Over a period of 152 years of this incredible transformation 170 00:13:57,780 --> 00:14:01,320 of the society, the British police and the military 171 00:14:01,320 --> 00:14:04,860 didn't kill more than 11 or 13 people. 172 00:14:08,170 --> 00:14:09,925 It's a remarkable story. 173 00:14:13,420 --> 00:14:17,410 And in it the origins of Marxist thought 174 00:14:17,410 --> 00:14:22,090 fits quite neatly, which I will talk a bit about later when we 175 00:14:22,090 --> 00:14:23,980 deal with Engels in Manchester. 176 00:14:30,480 --> 00:14:35,670 Clark makes a big story about the Malthusian trap. 177 00:14:35,670 --> 00:14:40,350 Malthus wrote a book in 1798-- 178 00:14:40,350 --> 00:14:41,670 I forget the title. 179 00:14:41,670 --> 00:14:42,940 I used to know the title. 180 00:14:42,940 --> 00:14:45,770 Does anybody know the title of Malthus' book? 181 00:14:45,770 --> 00:14:47,520 AUDIENCE: The dismal science [INAUDIBLE]?? 182 00:14:47,520 --> 00:14:48,478 JULIAN BEINART: No, no. 183 00:14:48,478 --> 00:14:52,560 That's what it was called by critics. 184 00:14:52,560 --> 00:14:56,770 It's something about the population. 185 00:14:56,770 --> 00:15:02,940 Essentially, the Malthusian trap, Clark argues, 186 00:15:02,940 --> 00:15:06,630 is that, until the Industrial Revolution, 187 00:15:06,630 --> 00:15:11,220 the amount of food that would be produced in a society 188 00:15:11,220 --> 00:15:15,360 or in a city or in a village was equal to the amount 189 00:15:15,360 --> 00:15:18,660 of population that could be fed. 190 00:15:18,660 --> 00:15:26,070 If there was an innovation in the society's production, 191 00:15:26,070 --> 00:15:30,210 incomes rose, but the population stayed the same 192 00:15:30,210 --> 00:15:35,490 because the food supply wasn't enlarged. 193 00:15:35,490 --> 00:15:42,540 Malthus in 1798m as I will show you in the graph, 194 00:15:42,540 --> 00:15:46,560 observed the most rapid change in percentage 195 00:15:46,560 --> 00:15:51,060 of population increase that Britain had ever seen. 196 00:15:51,060 --> 00:15:56,160 Manchester was increasing in population by 10% per annum, 197 00:15:56,160 --> 00:16:02,940 whereas European birth rates or growth rates, population growth 198 00:16:02,940 --> 00:16:05,740 rates, largely because of disease 199 00:16:05,740 --> 00:16:11,085 over the medieval period, averaged about 0.6% or 1%. 200 00:16:15,100 --> 00:16:22,990 Trevelyan, one of the great British historians, I quote-- 201 00:16:22,990 --> 00:16:26,410 "The survival of many more infants and the prolongation 202 00:16:26,410 --> 00:16:29,740 of the average age of adults marks off modern times 203 00:16:29,740 --> 00:16:31,060 from the past. 204 00:16:31,060 --> 00:16:36,900 And this change begins in the 19th century." 205 00:16:36,900 --> 00:16:42,840 Two phenomenon-- death rate, people live longer, 206 00:16:42,840 --> 00:16:45,840 and more children survive. 207 00:16:45,840 --> 00:16:48,840 Put those two together, and you have the fundamentals 208 00:16:48,840 --> 00:16:52,320 of population growth. 209 00:17:00,710 --> 00:17:06,170 In 1500, London's population was between 40,000 and 60,000 210 00:17:06,170 --> 00:17:07,910 people. 211 00:17:07,910 --> 00:17:14,210 Paris was already had a population of about 200,000. 212 00:17:14,210 --> 00:17:20,210 So London was almost the second great European city. 213 00:17:20,210 --> 00:17:25,280 By 1851 or 1850, it was the largest city in the world, 214 00:17:25,280 --> 00:17:29,120 with an estimated population of 2 to 2 and 1/2 million people. 215 00:17:32,760 --> 00:17:40,030 1851 is the signal date in the 19th century for us. 216 00:17:40,030 --> 00:17:45,530 What happened in 1851, or around about 1850? 217 00:17:45,530 --> 00:17:49,040 The most significant building of the 19th century 218 00:17:49,040 --> 00:17:54,680 was built in London, the Crystal Palace. 219 00:17:54,680 --> 00:17:58,820 Who is the chairman of the committee? 220 00:17:58,820 --> 00:18:01,256 And who built the Crystal Palace? 221 00:18:01,256 --> 00:18:02,960 AUDIENCE: It was Paxton, right? 222 00:18:02,960 --> 00:18:07,970 JULIAN BEINART: Paxton was chosen by James Cubitt. 223 00:18:07,970 --> 00:18:12,380 Cubitt was the first Industrial builder. 224 00:18:12,380 --> 00:18:17,570 Instead of using medieval feudal labor, journeymen, 225 00:18:17,570 --> 00:18:21,230 on a daily basis, he employed up to 1,000 people 226 00:18:21,230 --> 00:18:24,230 on permanent salaries. 227 00:18:24,230 --> 00:18:29,780 He believed, like many of these progressive individuals, 228 00:18:29,780 --> 00:18:34,310 that architects were second rate and [INAUDIBLE] 229 00:18:34,310 --> 00:18:39,440 in their behavior. 230 00:18:39,440 --> 00:18:41,690 Cubitt, for instance, advised the queen, 231 00:18:41,690 --> 00:18:45,860 who wanted to develop a large part of the Isle of Wight, 232 00:18:45,860 --> 00:18:48,170 I think it was, if I'm correct. 233 00:18:48,170 --> 00:18:50,210 I'm trying to remember. 234 00:18:50,210 --> 00:18:51,770 He said, don't use architects. 235 00:18:51,770 --> 00:18:53,720 They just waste your time. 236 00:18:53,720 --> 00:18:57,290 Baron Haussmann in Paris did exactly the same thing. 237 00:19:07,040 --> 00:19:14,110 1850-- England was, for the first time, 238 00:19:14,110 --> 00:19:19,060 divided into 50% of the population living in cities 239 00:19:19,060 --> 00:19:21,746 and 50% living in rural area. 240 00:19:35,650 --> 00:19:39,550 A trivial event, the invention of camera processing, 241 00:19:39,550 --> 00:19:43,600 the capacity to photograph, to make 242 00:19:43,600 --> 00:19:46,915 recordings of the built world-- 243 00:19:54,360 --> 00:19:55,680 the conquering of disease. 244 00:20:02,630 --> 00:20:16,200 In 1854, a physician in London decided 245 00:20:16,200 --> 00:20:22,380 that cholera, which is the most prevalent and most dangerous 246 00:20:22,380 --> 00:20:28,470 of urban diseases, was not born in the air but was water borne. 247 00:20:31,740 --> 00:20:35,280 These are pieces we are reading for next Tuesday, which 248 00:20:35,280 --> 00:20:39,690 deals with this, and followed by the biggest 249 00:20:39,690 --> 00:20:46,380 piece of infrastructure yet built in the world to-- 250 00:20:46,380 --> 00:20:51,240 imagine living in [INAUDIBLE]. 251 00:20:51,240 --> 00:20:56,130 Manchester in 1830, the city couldn't 252 00:20:56,130 --> 00:21:01,320 get people, municipal workers, to go into their houses. 253 00:21:01,320 --> 00:21:05,310 They had to open the windows first, break the windows 254 00:21:05,310 --> 00:21:08,100 to let in fresh air. 255 00:21:08,100 --> 00:21:13,470 The British parliament had to be stopped one summer 256 00:21:13,470 --> 00:21:16,010 because the smell was so bad. 257 00:21:16,010 --> 00:21:21,600 London rivers was so polluted, all the garbage and sewage 258 00:21:21,600 --> 00:21:25,680 and feces produced by the English 259 00:21:25,680 --> 00:21:29,100 in London, in a city of two million people, went straight 260 00:21:29,100 --> 00:21:30,990 into the river. 261 00:21:30,990 --> 00:21:35,280 People made a living picking up bones in the river. 262 00:21:35,280 --> 00:21:38,190 This is the first chapter of the book called The Ghost 263 00:21:38,190 --> 00:21:43,560 Map, which deals with the invention of the cholera 264 00:21:43,560 --> 00:21:45,120 phenomenon-- 265 00:21:45,120 --> 00:21:47,070 not the invention of the phenomenon, 266 00:21:47,070 --> 00:21:50,100 the invention of the cure-- 267 00:21:50,100 --> 00:21:55,500 which details that concept of life in London. 268 00:21:55,500 --> 00:22:08,430 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] started to compare [INAUDIBLE] 269 00:22:08,430 --> 00:22:11,440 JULIAN BEINART: Yeah, he did he did a kind of Sherlock Holmes 270 00:22:11,440 --> 00:22:11,940 thing-- 271 00:22:11,940 --> 00:22:13,440 AUDIENCE: Yeah, [INAUDIBLE] 272 00:22:13,440 --> 00:22:16,500 JULIAN BEINART: --taking random clues. 273 00:22:16,500 --> 00:22:22,320 When somebody died, the family would say, oh, 274 00:22:22,320 --> 00:22:24,773 we drank something last night. 275 00:22:24,773 --> 00:22:26,190 AUDIENCE: Yeah, he would track it. 276 00:22:26,190 --> 00:22:27,690 JULIAN BEINART: And he would track-- 277 00:22:27,690 --> 00:22:32,560 and he tracked it to the central water fountain. 278 00:22:32,560 --> 00:22:35,860 Remember that the British had no sewage system. 279 00:22:35,860 --> 00:22:37,440 So if you went to the toilet-- 280 00:22:37,440 --> 00:22:39,120 for a long time, the British-- 281 00:22:39,120 --> 00:22:42,360 at the Crystal Palace, they invented, 282 00:22:42,360 --> 00:22:46,530 or produced for the first time, the toilet seat. 283 00:22:46,530 --> 00:22:48,810 But the British bought the toilet seat 284 00:22:48,810 --> 00:22:51,900 but didn't understand that, if you used the toilet seat, 285 00:22:51,900 --> 00:22:56,850 something would happen to the material you produced. 286 00:22:56,850 --> 00:22:58,830 It's an extraordinary phenomenon. 287 00:23:05,760 --> 00:23:11,280 Let me just draw these two graphs. 288 00:23:11,280 --> 00:23:32,240 1700 to 1750, 1750 to 1800, 1800 to 1850, 1850 to 1900-- 289 00:23:32,240 --> 00:23:35,480 these are 50-year intervals-- 290 00:23:35,480 --> 00:23:45,950 1900 to 1950. 291 00:23:45,950 --> 00:24:00,790 This is 100%, 50%, 100%-- 292 00:24:00,790 --> 00:24:13,360 1850, 50%, 33%. 293 00:24:13,360 --> 00:24:28,940 1798-- Malthus' observations are at the peak period 294 00:24:28,940 --> 00:24:32,360 of the population increase. 295 00:24:32,360 --> 00:24:35,420 So therefore, his conclusion that the Malthusian trap 296 00:24:35,420 --> 00:24:40,370 would still continue was totally eviscerated 297 00:24:40,370 --> 00:24:42,605 by the industrial process. 298 00:24:52,060 --> 00:24:57,280 What explains this phenomenon, the decrease in the rate 299 00:24:57,280 --> 00:24:58,510 of population growth? 300 00:25:02,570 --> 00:25:04,820 The graph shows two lines-- 301 00:25:04,820 --> 00:25:09,140 one ascending very rapidly, one descending not quite as 302 00:25:09,140 --> 00:25:10,820 rapidly, but rapidly. 303 00:25:18,340 --> 00:25:24,970 This is explained by a theory called demographic transition. 304 00:25:24,970 --> 00:25:29,860 As you urbanize, you have fewer children. 305 00:25:29,860 --> 00:25:33,790 There are more costs involved in producing and maintaining 306 00:25:33,790 --> 00:25:35,380 a large family. 307 00:25:35,380 --> 00:25:38,470 And typically, populations once they 308 00:25:38,470 --> 00:25:43,420 have achieved their maximum through the migration of rural 309 00:25:43,420 --> 00:25:50,290 to urban, as the population now is largely urbanized-- 310 00:25:50,290 --> 00:25:54,430 or 50%, at least, is urbanized-- 311 00:25:54,430 --> 00:25:55,930 the population will drop. 312 00:26:37,840 --> 00:26:51,990 1800, 1950, 1850, 1900-- 313 00:26:51,990 --> 00:26:58,320 1800, three quarters of the country is agricultural. 314 00:26:58,320 --> 00:27:01,470 1900, half is agricultural. 315 00:27:01,470 --> 00:27:06,330 One quarter is agricultural, and then a small addition 316 00:27:06,330 --> 00:27:07,800 to make it about 70%-- 317 00:27:10,950 --> 00:27:15,030 80% urbanized. 318 00:27:20,780 --> 00:27:27,850 These phenomena, in different variations, 319 00:27:27,850 --> 00:27:30,295 occur at the moment. 320 00:27:32,800 --> 00:27:40,970 Population growth in Russia projected for the next 50 years 321 00:27:40,970 --> 00:27:42,020 is minus 25%. 322 00:27:46,100 --> 00:27:53,030 Population growth for Western Africa is plus 122%; 323 00:27:53,030 --> 00:28:01,160 Middle Africa, 175%; Japan, minus 13%; 324 00:28:01,160 --> 00:28:07,070 as you move from Russia towards the West, Central Europe, 325 00:28:07,070 --> 00:28:09,880 Western Europe, minus 0.2%. 326 00:28:18,290 --> 00:28:20,640 It used to be that planners believe 327 00:28:20,640 --> 00:28:23,630 that if you wish to decrease population growth, 328 00:28:23,630 --> 00:28:27,530 you should urbanize people, that urbanization 329 00:28:27,530 --> 00:28:33,290 was the fastest non-lethal method of ensuring population 330 00:28:33,290 --> 00:28:34,466 maintenance. 331 00:28:43,220 --> 00:28:48,890 It's all a theoretical posture prior 332 00:28:48,890 --> 00:28:52,760 to cities being as large as 20 million people 333 00:28:52,760 --> 00:28:58,670 and also prior to the growth of population 334 00:28:58,670 --> 00:29:04,310 being limited now to people who are in the absolute poverty 335 00:29:04,310 --> 00:29:06,170 state. 336 00:29:06,170 --> 00:29:07,730 So you have a combination of-- 337 00:29:10,830 --> 00:29:20,370 in a sense, you could argue that, demographically, 338 00:29:20,370 --> 00:29:27,150 when people have reached the maximum point of urbanization, 339 00:29:27,150 --> 00:29:33,900 and the family sizes decrease, population can only 340 00:29:33,900 --> 00:29:36,720 increase by virtue of an increase 341 00:29:36,720 --> 00:29:41,100 of that group of people, which is largely possible 342 00:29:41,100 --> 00:29:43,210 due to immigration. 343 00:29:43,210 --> 00:29:47,460 So the more the economy is advanced, the more likely 344 00:29:47,460 --> 00:29:54,240 it is that immigration will replace work and increase 345 00:29:54,240 --> 00:29:55,830 population. 346 00:29:55,830 --> 00:30:00,450 I don't know what the percentage of immigration 347 00:30:00,450 --> 00:30:03,180 is in America's population growth, 348 00:30:03,180 --> 00:30:08,550 but it certainly must account for a significant amount, 349 00:30:08,550 --> 00:30:12,090 because these projections for the United States 350 00:30:12,090 --> 00:30:16,290 are plus 33% over the next 50 years. 351 00:30:16,290 --> 00:30:19,260 Now, these are guesses, but they're 352 00:30:19,260 --> 00:30:23,010 better guesses than most people, the guesses by the United 353 00:30:23,010 --> 00:30:27,340 Nations, who employ a fairly respectable group of people. 354 00:30:30,200 --> 00:30:39,740 OK, why do people shift from the rural areas of the country 355 00:30:39,740 --> 00:30:42,032 to its urban areas? 356 00:30:42,032 --> 00:30:44,000 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] 357 00:30:44,000 --> 00:30:45,980 JULIAN BEINART: Hm? 358 00:30:45,980 --> 00:30:46,520 Sorry. 359 00:30:46,520 --> 00:30:48,304 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] jobs. 360 00:30:48,304 --> 00:30:50,090 [INAUDIBLE] 361 00:30:50,090 --> 00:30:52,820 JULIAN BEINART: Yeah. 362 00:30:52,820 --> 00:30:56,540 But that presumes there's no work where they are-- 363 00:30:56,540 --> 00:30:59,210 better work. 364 00:30:59,210 --> 00:31:02,070 And better work implies a number of things. 365 00:31:02,070 --> 00:31:06,080 It implies what's being called by demographers the life 366 00:31:06,080 --> 00:31:08,720 lottery, that you stand to higher 367 00:31:08,720 --> 00:31:13,490 random chance of producing good things 368 00:31:13,490 --> 00:31:17,220 or being recognized than you do in the country. 369 00:31:17,220 --> 00:31:22,410 The second is the capacity of the country to support you. 370 00:31:22,410 --> 00:31:25,820 There are always two phenomenon. 371 00:31:25,820 --> 00:31:29,390 Land reform has been one of the more difficult aspects 372 00:31:29,390 --> 00:31:34,175 of urban, rural change. 373 00:31:36,850 --> 00:31:40,990 In South Africa, if I remember the statistics correctly, 374 00:31:40,990 --> 00:31:47,120 although 80% of the people are Black, 375 00:31:47,120 --> 00:31:52,250 of the population are Black, or 70% to 80%, less than 20% 376 00:31:52,250 --> 00:31:57,140 of the agricultural land is owned by Black people. 377 00:31:57,140 --> 00:32:01,310 You can see what happens, what traumatic events happened 378 00:32:01,310 --> 00:32:09,800 in Zimbabwe, when Mugabe tries to manufacture 379 00:32:09,800 --> 00:32:15,990 the removal of people from the land in order to-- 380 00:32:15,990 --> 00:32:17,945 it happens to be white people. 381 00:32:21,600 --> 00:32:26,880 South Africa is on the way to increasing the amount of land 382 00:32:26,880 --> 00:32:33,130 and operated by its Black people. 383 00:32:33,130 --> 00:32:38,370 But one of the significant events-- 384 00:32:38,370 --> 00:32:40,410 and I think there's a sheet which 385 00:32:40,410 --> 00:32:44,040 covers this in your reading-- 386 00:32:44,040 --> 00:32:45,540 is the Enclosure Acts. 387 00:32:49,740 --> 00:33:02,280 The Enclosure Acts eliminated the possibility 388 00:33:02,280 --> 00:33:07,290 of poor people, rural populations, 389 00:33:07,290 --> 00:33:10,890 having access to commons land. 390 00:33:10,890 --> 00:33:15,060 At the time of the census in 1086, 391 00:33:15,060 --> 00:33:19,650 more than half the arable land belonged to the villages. 392 00:33:19,650 --> 00:33:24,432 Enclosure, by redefining land as property-- 393 00:33:24,432 --> 00:33:30,960 the Enclosure Acts from the 15th to the 19th century, enclosed 394 00:33:30,960 --> 00:33:34,050 commons lands and made it into property. 395 00:33:37,290 --> 00:33:41,490 Between the 14th and 16th century, thousands of residents 396 00:33:41,490 --> 00:33:44,560 were evicted from their holdings when many more 397 00:33:44,560 --> 00:33:48,300 saw the common land that were the basis of their independence 398 00:33:48,300 --> 00:33:49,665 fenced off for sheep. 399 00:33:52,670 --> 00:33:55,910 Raymond Williams' book The Country and the City 400 00:33:55,910 --> 00:33:58,460 examines this phenomenon. 401 00:33:58,460 --> 00:34:03,860 In 1873, half the country was owned by some 7,000 people 402 00:34:03,860 --> 00:34:08,719 in a rural population of around 10 million. 403 00:34:08,719 --> 00:34:12,139 The capitalism of the Manchester has been built 404 00:34:12,139 --> 00:34:14,630 on an agrarian capitalism. 405 00:34:14,630 --> 00:34:19,010 In the 18th century, half the cultivated land 406 00:34:19,010 --> 00:34:22,520 was owned by 5,000 families, nearly a quarter 407 00:34:22,520 --> 00:34:23,765 by 400 families. 408 00:34:31,110 --> 00:34:33,540 Now, you can argue that modern farming 409 00:34:33,540 --> 00:34:37,050 needed more land in the subdivision of land 410 00:34:37,050 --> 00:34:38,695 into common parcels. 411 00:34:41,219 --> 00:34:47,010 But there's a rejoicing about the profit of making-- 412 00:34:47,010 --> 00:34:54,310 converting common land into property. 413 00:34:54,310 --> 00:34:59,290 Philip Sidney, the poet, writes about-- 414 00:34:59,290 --> 00:35:03,910 the term Arcadianism refers to a Utopian condition 415 00:35:03,910 --> 00:35:06,430 in English literature. 416 00:35:06,430 --> 00:35:14,830 Arcadia is invented as some sort of alternative world of wonder, 417 00:35:14,830 --> 00:35:18,400 largely because of nature. 418 00:35:18,400 --> 00:35:23,260 Philip Sidney invented the term Arcadianism 419 00:35:23,260 --> 00:35:28,960 in a part which was made as a result of the enclosure 420 00:35:28,960 --> 00:35:30,280 of the commons land. 421 00:35:40,140 --> 00:35:46,770 So on the one hand, if one simplifies the story, 422 00:35:46,770 --> 00:35:51,930 one suggests that the conditions of the poor 423 00:35:51,930 --> 00:35:57,180 were exacerbated by the removal of their rights to land 424 00:35:57,180 --> 00:36:00,780 and was one of the phenomenon which 425 00:36:00,780 --> 00:36:05,610 caused them to move involuntarily to cities. 426 00:36:05,610 --> 00:36:09,600 Now, whether this is absolutely true or not, I don't know. 427 00:36:09,600 --> 00:36:13,230 Economic historians start dividing themselves up 428 00:36:13,230 --> 00:36:16,080 into capitalist-oriented historians 429 00:36:16,080 --> 00:36:18,510 and labor-oriented historians. 430 00:36:18,510 --> 00:36:21,780 And you can take your pick as to who. 431 00:36:21,780 --> 00:36:24,420 But the notion that land becomes-- 432 00:36:24,420 --> 00:36:30,150 that land is available to the population is changed 433 00:36:30,150 --> 00:36:34,650 to property has severe implications 434 00:36:34,650 --> 00:36:40,230 which Engels, in his writing about Manchester, observes. 435 00:36:40,230 --> 00:36:45,660 He says there are changes in the social structure of families 436 00:36:45,660 --> 00:36:50,490 once they move into the factory system. 437 00:36:50,490 --> 00:36:53,700 These are not voluntary labor moves. 438 00:36:53,700 --> 00:36:58,560 Engels claims that the capitalists 439 00:36:58,560 --> 00:37:03,600 keep people in an insecure state by not 440 00:37:03,600 --> 00:37:10,150 making them have available alternatives to their jobs. 441 00:37:10,150 --> 00:37:12,990 They don't have security of jobs anyway. 442 00:37:12,990 --> 00:37:18,495 And so therefore, they abide by low wages. 443 00:37:22,290 --> 00:37:25,460 Manchester, which I'll deal with in some detail, 444 00:37:25,460 --> 00:37:30,060 largely through the writing of Engels, 445 00:37:30,060 --> 00:37:35,980 became the most important example of this manifestation, 446 00:37:35,980 --> 00:37:45,810 the conjunction of rationalized labor in factory production 447 00:37:45,810 --> 00:37:50,010 and the deterioration of social circumstances 448 00:37:50,010 --> 00:37:55,680 beyond which the world had not ever experienced before. 449 00:37:58,750 --> 00:38:06,000 James Joyce wrote a collection of essays 450 00:38:06,000 --> 00:38:09,690 called The Dubliners in which one of the essays 451 00:38:09,690 --> 00:38:14,510 is called "The Dead," which was made into a film. 452 00:38:14,510 --> 00:38:16,290 I don't know-- I don't remember-- 453 00:38:16,290 --> 00:38:18,480 Joseph Cotten, I think, was in the film. 454 00:38:18,480 --> 00:38:19,290 I'm not sure. 455 00:38:25,960 --> 00:38:30,480 The situation is such-- 456 00:38:30,480 --> 00:38:32,790 in the story, there's a young man 457 00:38:32,790 --> 00:38:35,520 who decides to leave Dublin. 458 00:38:35,520 --> 00:38:40,560 Nobody can understand why he wants to leave Dublin. 459 00:38:40,560 --> 00:38:45,060 He says the only way to get out of Dublin, as Dublin 460 00:38:45,060 --> 00:38:48,720 is totally controlled by religion 461 00:38:48,720 --> 00:38:52,440 and by social pressure, is to drink. 462 00:38:55,590 --> 00:38:58,140 Irish drink because they can-- 463 00:38:58,140 --> 00:39:00,900 only where they can liberate themselves 464 00:39:00,900 --> 00:39:06,460 from the compulsion of their circumstances. 465 00:39:06,460 --> 00:39:09,520 This man is considered to be dead, 466 00:39:09,520 --> 00:39:13,540 but he's actually very alive in making the decision 467 00:39:13,540 --> 00:39:16,120 to move out of the society. 468 00:39:16,120 --> 00:39:19,252 It took an Irishman like Joyce to see the-- 469 00:39:21,850 --> 00:39:25,870 use this as ammunition. 470 00:39:25,870 --> 00:39:27,930 I'm just jumping all over the place. 471 00:39:33,080 --> 00:39:36,080 Let's go on, because there a number of things 472 00:39:36,080 --> 00:39:37,835 I want to touch in more detail. 473 00:39:45,440 --> 00:39:48,140 I gave you Leo Huberman's subdivision 474 00:39:48,140 --> 00:39:53,635 of the nature of manufacturing, from the household or family 475 00:39:53,635 --> 00:39:54,135 system-- 476 00:39:56,690 --> 00:39:59,330 it's there, is it? 477 00:39:59,330 --> 00:40:01,760 I'm not sure what I hand out every time. 478 00:40:13,420 --> 00:40:16,380 It starts off with a household or family system. 479 00:40:16,380 --> 00:40:17,350 AUDIENCE: Mhm. 480 00:40:17,350 --> 00:40:18,142 JULIAN BEINART: OK. 481 00:40:21,740 --> 00:40:29,840 This is a construction of the move from a system where 482 00:40:29,840 --> 00:40:32,450 you produce in your own house for your own use, 483 00:40:32,450 --> 00:40:33,520 not for sale-- 484 00:40:33,520 --> 00:40:35,435 there's no work for an outside market-- 485 00:40:38,060 --> 00:40:40,520 all the way to the Guild system, where there's 486 00:40:40,520 --> 00:40:44,090 a small stable outside market. 487 00:40:44,090 --> 00:40:46,500 Workers own their own materials and tools. 488 00:40:46,500 --> 00:40:48,590 They sell their products, not their labor. 489 00:40:55,260 --> 00:40:59,610 Up to the early Middle Ages, space in the house 490 00:40:59,610 --> 00:41:02,760 was undifferentiated. 491 00:41:02,760 --> 00:41:06,150 In Henry Fielding's 18th century novel 492 00:41:06,150 --> 00:41:11,970 Tom Jones, which was also made into a movie, 493 00:41:11,970 --> 00:41:16,800 you see the behavior of a family and the journeymen 494 00:41:16,800 --> 00:41:20,190 who come and work and have sex with the young women 495 00:41:20,190 --> 00:41:22,440 in the attic. 496 00:41:22,440 --> 00:41:26,850 There's a whole bodily kind of scene. 497 00:41:26,850 --> 00:41:28,620 People eat together. 498 00:41:28,620 --> 00:41:33,180 Production and eating and sex and families and children 499 00:41:33,180 --> 00:41:38,505 are all maintained in the same ensemble of interest. 500 00:41:41,620 --> 00:41:45,490 The guild system runs into trouble 501 00:41:45,490 --> 00:41:53,230 in the 19th century with the emergence of a factory system, 502 00:41:53,230 --> 00:41:57,400 where production now is for a fluctuating outside market, 503 00:41:57,400 --> 00:42:00,160 carried out in the employer's buildings. 504 00:42:00,160 --> 00:42:03,640 Workers own neither raw material nor tools, 505 00:42:03,640 --> 00:42:05,200 and capital is needed. 506 00:42:09,730 --> 00:42:14,680 The mortgage system, as I will explain to you next week, 507 00:42:14,680 --> 00:42:17,890 emanates from, at the time of the transition, 508 00:42:17,890 --> 00:42:23,140 from the fluctuating building guild to the permanent building 509 00:42:23,140 --> 00:42:24,305 society. 510 00:42:24,305 --> 00:42:27,820 Those of you who live in India and in South Africa 511 00:42:27,820 --> 00:42:31,240 know that you borrow money, still today, from the building 512 00:42:31,240 --> 00:42:35,080 society, not from a bank. 513 00:42:35,080 --> 00:42:36,225 Is this true in India? 514 00:42:40,150 --> 00:42:41,860 OK. 515 00:42:41,860 --> 00:42:44,720 I thought so. 516 00:42:44,720 --> 00:42:49,960 What happened with the temporary building-- 517 00:42:49,960 --> 00:42:55,410 the building guild is that, as the middle class emerged 518 00:42:55,410 --> 00:43:02,320 and became an enormous clientele for housing, 519 00:43:02,320 --> 00:43:07,270 they transformed their identity from simply making 520 00:43:07,270 --> 00:43:13,060 houses for themselves or for the guild to becoming virtually 521 00:43:13,060 --> 00:43:17,230 a bank for housing. 522 00:43:17,230 --> 00:43:20,710 They invented the mortgage system, 523 00:43:20,710 --> 00:43:25,870 which according to housing historians, 524 00:43:25,870 --> 00:43:30,400 was as fundamental an invention as the steam engine 525 00:43:30,400 --> 00:43:34,100 in the 19th century England. 526 00:43:34,100 --> 00:43:36,110 The genius of the mortgage system 527 00:43:36,110 --> 00:43:43,060 is that you pay off the interest before you pay off the capital. 528 00:43:43,060 --> 00:43:49,030 The availability of loans in the United States 529 00:43:49,030 --> 00:43:53,620 prior to later use of the mortgage system 530 00:43:53,620 --> 00:43:57,460 meant that you could borrow money wither in a balloon 531 00:43:57,460 --> 00:43:59,545 loan or a standard loan. 532 00:44:02,560 --> 00:44:05,950 You borrow money of $100,000. 533 00:44:05,950 --> 00:44:09,160 You go away for 20 years, and you come back and say, here's 534 00:44:09,160 --> 00:44:11,380 the $100,000. 535 00:44:11,380 --> 00:44:16,900 By that time, the interest is made it increased to $300,000, 536 00:44:16,900 --> 00:44:21,670 and you haven't got the $200,000 you need to pay off your loan. 537 00:44:21,670 --> 00:44:25,090 Some people argue that this is one 538 00:44:25,090 --> 00:44:29,710 of the fundamental reasons for the Great Depression 539 00:44:29,710 --> 00:44:47,520 in the United States in 1930s. 540 00:44:47,520 --> 00:44:49,530 You have to also understand, I think, 541 00:44:49,530 --> 00:44:52,710 the transference, or the invention, 542 00:44:52,710 --> 00:44:54,690 of the idea of capital. 543 00:44:54,690 --> 00:44:58,155 According to Engels, capital is the unpaid labor of others. 544 00:45:02,100 --> 00:45:08,040 In a simple experiment, those of you who are architects 545 00:45:08,040 --> 00:45:13,200 are not going to be able to make much money in your life 546 00:45:13,200 --> 00:45:18,570 if you use your own skills by yourself. 547 00:45:18,570 --> 00:45:20,880 As soon as you employ others, you 548 00:45:20,880 --> 00:45:25,410 pay them less than they deserve or less than they produce, 549 00:45:25,410 --> 00:45:27,180 and you skim off the profit. 550 00:45:27,180 --> 00:45:27,870 That's capital. 551 00:45:30,840 --> 00:45:35,835 I'll repeat Engels-- capital is the unpaid labor of others. 552 00:45:38,410 --> 00:45:46,210 So capital, in a sense, is a new creation in the factory system 553 00:45:46,210 --> 00:45:49,600 and identified by Marx and Engels-- 554 00:45:49,600 --> 00:45:52,635 Marx more than Engels, in Das Kapital. 555 00:46:00,880 --> 00:46:02,755 So much for the change in labor. 556 00:46:06,300 --> 00:46:10,395 I mentioned the transformation of industry. 557 00:46:14,690 --> 00:46:19,930 None of these economic historians connect 558 00:46:19,930 --> 00:46:25,240 the invention of mass-produced iron or the various shuttles 559 00:46:25,240 --> 00:46:31,810 and steam power they used to produce cotton 560 00:46:31,810 --> 00:46:36,920 or to manufacture cotton, process cotton-- 561 00:46:36,920 --> 00:46:41,470 with science. 562 00:46:41,470 --> 00:46:43,590 I don't know who's written about the fact 563 00:46:43,590 --> 00:46:47,580 that people were operating on scientific principles, 564 00:46:47,580 --> 00:46:50,910 new scientific principles, introducing these. 565 00:46:57,340 --> 00:46:57,845 Let's see. 566 00:46:57,845 --> 00:46:58,720 I'd rather get onto-- 567 00:47:05,050 --> 00:47:09,730 by around 1825, while England had only 2% 568 00:47:09,730 --> 00:47:12,280 of the world's population, the volume 569 00:47:12,280 --> 00:47:14,410 of production in English ironworks 570 00:47:14,410 --> 00:47:16,950 was equal to that of all the rest of the world. 571 00:47:21,880 --> 00:47:27,980 Iron was always a material resistant to-- 572 00:47:27,980 --> 00:47:34,340 copper and bronze, in human tool development, preceded iron. 573 00:47:34,340 --> 00:47:40,250 Iron was always difficult to work with until somebody 574 00:47:40,250 --> 00:47:44,960 thought about using coal in relation to iron 575 00:47:44,960 --> 00:47:47,420 and eventually producing steel. 576 00:47:47,420 --> 00:47:50,360 Iron with a hopeless commodity. 577 00:47:50,360 --> 00:47:57,188 Cast iron, pig iron wasn't capable of much capacity 578 00:47:57,188 --> 00:47:58,230 in the building industry. 579 00:48:07,600 --> 00:48:09,290 Let's move on to another cycle. 580 00:48:28,930 --> 00:48:35,140 One of the dictums the invention of 19th century Marxism, 581 00:48:35,140 --> 00:48:39,700 which took place largely in England, with Engels 582 00:48:39,700 --> 00:48:44,770 at age of 24 in Manchester and Karl Marx 583 00:48:44,770 --> 00:48:48,580 living it up in London, supported partly 584 00:48:48,580 --> 00:48:50,350 by Engels from Manchester-- 585 00:48:52,930 --> 00:48:55,720 both of whom were German-- 586 00:48:55,720 --> 00:48:58,240 Karl Marx a German Jew. 587 00:48:58,240 --> 00:49:06,250 Friedrich Engels was younger but the son of a merchant, cotton 588 00:49:06,250 --> 00:49:08,670 merchant, in the Ruhr. 589 00:49:15,250 --> 00:49:20,440 Well, after Marx was banished to England, 590 00:49:20,440 --> 00:49:24,700 he set about constructing a philosophical structure 591 00:49:24,700 --> 00:49:27,325 of what he thought would be-- 592 00:49:31,570 --> 00:49:39,110 what he thought was a version of the Hegelian idea 593 00:49:39,110 --> 00:49:44,350 that history is not linear, but history 594 00:49:44,350 --> 00:49:51,010 is composed of a dialectic in which one state is confronted 595 00:49:51,010 --> 00:49:52,210 by its opposition. 596 00:49:52,210 --> 00:49:54,490 And then a synthesis occurs, which 597 00:49:54,490 --> 00:50:01,050 moves which moves rationally towards freedom. 598 00:50:01,050 --> 00:50:06,273 God alone knows that's a cross explanation of Hegelianism. 599 00:50:09,450 --> 00:50:13,470 What Marx didn't have, although he 600 00:50:13,470 --> 00:50:18,870 read The London Times every day and studied the stock market, 601 00:50:18,870 --> 00:50:26,190 didn't have the facts of the case facts. 602 00:50:26,190 --> 00:50:27,720 Marx was a bit of a snob. 603 00:50:27,720 --> 00:50:32,590 He sent his kids, his daughters, to private school in London. 604 00:50:32,590 --> 00:50:40,150 He never earned a penny himself, but was a man 605 00:50:40,150 --> 00:50:42,400 who sat in the British Library. 606 00:50:42,400 --> 00:50:47,290 I had a friend, an old man, who worked in the British Library. 607 00:50:47,290 --> 00:50:50,620 And one day, he went to a retirement parity 608 00:50:50,620 --> 00:50:54,280 for one of the guards. 609 00:50:54,280 --> 00:50:57,370 And he asked this guard if he remembered a man with a beard 610 00:50:57,370 --> 00:50:59,470 who sat in the corner. 611 00:50:59,470 --> 00:51:02,440 And he said, oh, yes, I wonder what became of him. 612 00:51:02,440 --> 00:51:05,140 [LAUGHTER] 613 00:51:06,040 --> 00:51:09,445 Engels, at the age of 24, was-- 614 00:51:12,790 --> 00:51:17,950 both of them had been under the influence of Hegel. 615 00:51:17,950 --> 00:51:23,140 Hegel was first-- was a professor 616 00:51:23,140 --> 00:51:27,850 in a rural university. 617 00:51:27,850 --> 00:51:30,010 But then for a short period of time 618 00:51:30,010 --> 00:51:35,710 was given a chair at Berlin because his philosophy was not 619 00:51:35,710 --> 00:51:41,620 considered to be dangerous to the regime 620 00:51:41,620 --> 00:51:46,870 of the Prussian kings. 621 00:51:46,870 --> 00:51:53,030 Engels provided them with the data that they needed. 622 00:51:53,030 --> 00:51:56,090 Marx talks about facts, facts, facts. 623 00:51:58,840 --> 00:52:04,720 Engels arrived in Manchester because his family 624 00:52:04,720 --> 00:52:10,600 had share in a cotton produce manufacturing 625 00:52:10,600 --> 00:52:12,450 operation in the city. 626 00:52:16,110 --> 00:52:26,280 Engels' reaction to what he saw in Manchester was multifold. 627 00:52:29,990 --> 00:52:32,380 He liked the good life. 628 00:52:32,380 --> 00:52:35,010 He drank Chateau Margaux. 629 00:52:35,010 --> 00:52:38,040 He ate lobster salad. 630 00:52:38,040 --> 00:52:42,510 He belonged to the Manchester Royal Exchange. 631 00:52:42,510 --> 00:52:46,110 He went foxhunting. 632 00:52:46,110 --> 00:52:49,070 He accepted the life of a-- 633 00:52:53,820 --> 00:52:58,140 he liked expensive women, on the one hand. 634 00:52:58,140 --> 00:53:01,500 On the other hand, he was curious 635 00:53:01,500 --> 00:53:05,730 about the world in which he suddenly found himself. 636 00:53:05,730 --> 00:53:10,450 He had an association with Elizabeth Burns, 637 00:53:10,450 --> 00:53:16,200 an illiterate Irish woman whom he walked around 638 00:53:16,200 --> 00:53:18,990 and asked her questions about why 639 00:53:18,990 --> 00:53:22,560 the world was the way it was-- 640 00:53:22,560 --> 00:53:26,880 extraordinary for a young man of 24 641 00:53:26,880 --> 00:53:29,250 to produce probably the most important book 642 00:53:29,250 --> 00:53:30,620 of housing ever written. 643 00:53:33,530 --> 00:53:35,450 He would ask her question such as, 644 00:53:35,450 --> 00:53:41,350 why does the main road not run to the slum that we're in? 645 00:53:41,350 --> 00:53:45,890 And she would say, because they don't want to see us-- 646 00:53:45,890 --> 00:53:50,180 the whole idea of critical distance, the phenomenon 647 00:53:50,180 --> 00:53:54,200 of putting people and pathways out of the way 648 00:53:54,200 --> 00:53:59,030 of where other people of another kind live. 649 00:53:59,030 --> 00:54:01,880 You could take the plan of a city 650 00:54:01,880 --> 00:54:06,320 and demarcate its roads in terms of critical distance. 651 00:54:10,490 --> 00:54:17,750 Nobody goes through Mattapan to get anywhere else in Boston 652 00:54:17,750 --> 00:54:19,745 unless you live in Mattapan itself. 653 00:54:23,710 --> 00:54:25,385 No roads run through Roxbury. 654 00:54:30,200 --> 00:54:34,460 Robert Moses created the pathways of it 655 00:54:34,460 --> 00:54:40,330 in the book on Moses. 656 00:54:40,330 --> 00:54:44,540 The frontispiece-- there's a map of Moses' road systems 657 00:54:44,540 --> 00:54:46,385 evading the property of the wealthy. 658 00:54:51,440 --> 00:54:52,865 He would ask her why-- 659 00:54:57,200 --> 00:55:00,710 all kinds of questions. 660 00:55:00,710 --> 00:55:02,960 I'm just drifting off to some of them. 661 00:55:17,220 --> 00:55:20,430 He writes about health. 662 00:55:20,430 --> 00:55:25,470 50% of children born in Manchester 663 00:55:25,470 --> 00:55:31,110 died, either in childbirth or as infant. 664 00:55:31,110 --> 00:55:36,520 He says, why do people live this way? 665 00:55:36,520 --> 00:55:42,340 And the answers are we have no other opportunities. 666 00:55:42,340 --> 00:55:46,240 He says, why are you kept in such a state of insecurity? 667 00:55:46,240 --> 00:55:50,080 You don't have permanent jobs. 668 00:55:50,080 --> 00:55:57,310 Why do you work at work which alienates you? 669 00:55:57,310 --> 00:56:00,800 You have to go to work at 6 o'clock in the morning. 670 00:56:00,800 --> 00:56:01,840 The bell rings. 671 00:56:01,840 --> 00:56:05,260 If you're late by five minutes, your pay 672 00:56:05,260 --> 00:56:10,720 is taken away, and so on and so on. 673 00:56:10,720 --> 00:56:14,470 Why are you supervised in everything you do. 674 00:56:14,470 --> 00:56:19,900 And then they say, well, that's what the factory system is. 675 00:56:19,900 --> 00:56:22,720 Why are you-- and so on. 676 00:56:25,300 --> 00:56:28,990 Engels writes, I've never seen such a social class, 677 00:56:28,990 --> 00:56:32,030 seen a social class so deeply demoralized 678 00:56:32,030 --> 00:56:34,000 as the middle class. 679 00:56:34,000 --> 00:56:36,490 They know no happiness except quick profit. 680 00:56:42,840 --> 00:56:47,500 Marxist philosophy needed the establishment, 681 00:56:47,500 --> 00:56:50,250 the factual establishment of Engels' 682 00:56:50,250 --> 00:56:52,830 writing about Manchester in order 683 00:56:52,830 --> 00:56:58,680 to deliver a philosophy, which Engels had something 684 00:56:58,680 --> 00:57:04,980 to do with, and propagating it in Europe until he 685 00:57:04,980 --> 00:57:08,845 died at the age of 75, close to the end of the century. 686 00:57:15,770 --> 00:57:31,060 Manchester was-- the historical dialectic of Hegel 687 00:57:31,060 --> 00:57:34,750 didn't specify what the final condition of the dialectic 688 00:57:34,750 --> 00:57:35,980 would be. 689 00:57:35,980 --> 00:57:37,375 It simply said freedom. 690 00:57:40,820 --> 00:57:43,250 There was no instruction in Hegel 691 00:57:43,250 --> 00:57:47,935 that it would end up in a state devoted to egalitarianism. 692 00:57:52,110 --> 00:57:55,200 Engels and Marx did this change. 693 00:57:55,200 --> 00:57:58,440 They did something else. 694 00:57:58,440 --> 00:58:02,010 They didn't consider the British capable 695 00:58:02,010 --> 00:58:08,100 of moving to the justification to the-- 696 00:58:08,100 --> 00:58:11,910 they didn't consider the British capable 697 00:58:11,910 --> 00:58:19,020 of doing the changes that need to be done to make Manchester 698 00:58:19,020 --> 00:58:24,120 a relic, historical relic. 699 00:58:24,120 --> 00:58:27,150 They were too slow. 700 00:58:27,150 --> 00:58:30,480 There was a British countermovement all the time. 701 00:58:30,480 --> 00:58:34,590 The Chartist movement was considered by Engels 702 00:58:34,590 --> 00:58:38,250 to be not radical enough. 703 00:58:38,250 --> 00:58:44,310 He and Marx decided after 1848 that revolution 704 00:58:44,310 --> 00:58:47,850 was the only way to transform society 705 00:58:47,850 --> 00:58:50,490 according to the Hegel philosophy, 706 00:58:50,490 --> 00:58:52,860 that it needed to be abrupt. 707 00:58:52,860 --> 00:58:57,280 And the 1917, 1918 revolution in Russia 708 00:58:57,280 --> 00:59:03,690 was, in fact, the apotheosis of this philosophy. 709 00:59:03,690 --> 00:59:14,270 In England, as I said 20 minutes ago, it took time. 710 00:59:14,270 --> 00:59:17,585 The Chartist movement was a working class movement 711 00:59:17,585 --> 00:59:20,810 which asked only for people-- 712 00:59:20,810 --> 00:59:24,110 males to vote, not women to vote. 713 00:59:24,110 --> 00:59:29,120 They were asked for minor securities in jobs and so on. 714 00:59:29,120 --> 00:59:31,760 The English version of the Socialist Party 715 00:59:31,760 --> 00:59:42,770 only started gaining political strength as the years went on. 716 00:59:42,770 --> 00:59:55,650 But by 1902, the English had a Town and Country Planning Act. 717 00:59:55,650 --> 01:00:07,370 And many of the anticipated conditions of Manchester 718 01:00:07,370 --> 01:00:11,360 had been alleviated in part. 719 01:00:11,360 --> 01:00:16,610 There's some question, again, as to how much or not. 720 01:00:20,650 --> 01:00:23,765 Manchester was the site of some other events. 721 01:00:28,390 --> 01:00:42,610 Let me just-- a woman called Ann Lee worked 14 hours a day 722 01:00:42,610 --> 01:00:46,000 in a cotton mill as a child. 723 01:00:46,000 --> 01:00:49,030 Her first three children died in infamy. 724 01:00:49,030 --> 01:00:51,310 The fourth was stillborn, and, quote, 725 01:00:51,310 --> 01:00:53,500 "as she lay in the agony of delivery 726 01:00:53,500 --> 01:00:57,790 for hours, screaming that sexual intercourse was the cause 727 01:00:57,790 --> 01:01:00,760 of all the world's evil." 728 01:01:00,760 --> 01:01:02,110 What happened to Ann Lee? 729 01:01:07,950 --> 01:01:13,000 Why's Ann Lee-- why do I mention Ann Lee's name? 730 01:01:13,000 --> 01:01:17,100 She left for New York in 1774. 731 01:01:17,100 --> 01:01:20,600 What did she do? 732 01:01:20,600 --> 01:01:21,555 Hm? 733 01:01:21,555 --> 01:01:22,920 AUDIENCE: Shakers? 734 01:01:22,920 --> 01:01:24,600 JULIAN BEINART: Yes. 735 01:01:24,600 --> 01:01:27,510 Yes, yes, yes, yes, of course. 736 01:01:27,510 --> 01:01:30,750 Sexual intercourse, being infamy, 737 01:01:30,750 --> 01:01:35,490 would lead to a resistant community such as Shakers, 738 01:01:35,490 --> 01:01:38,040 which only shook your hand. 739 01:01:38,040 --> 01:01:42,090 That's the closest you came to another body, at least 740 01:01:42,090 --> 01:01:44,385 another body of the opposite sex. 741 01:01:47,220 --> 01:01:51,930 Yes, Ann Lee left London for New York in '74 to lead the-- 742 01:01:51,930 --> 01:01:55,760 invent the Shakers movement. 743 01:01:55,760 --> 01:02:01,280 In 1789, 15 years later, a young Welshman who was 18 years old, 744 01:02:01,280 --> 01:02:05,570 Robert Owen, borrowed 100 pounds and went into the cotton 745 01:02:05,570 --> 01:02:08,600 business in Manchester. 746 01:02:08,600 --> 01:02:13,130 He later went to New Lanark in Scotland at the age of 28 747 01:02:13,130 --> 01:02:13,850 from the USA. 748 01:02:13,850 --> 01:02:16,980 He was the first socialist leader in Great Britain 749 01:02:16,980 --> 01:02:21,500 and the leader of the first short-lived national trade 750 01:02:21,500 --> 01:02:23,550 union-- 751 01:02:23,550 --> 01:02:25,040 also from Manchester. 752 01:02:29,210 --> 01:02:32,720 I suppose, at any point in human history, 753 01:02:32,720 --> 01:02:38,540 there's a place which is important enough 754 01:02:38,540 --> 01:02:41,600 to change the world. 755 01:02:41,600 --> 01:02:44,600 Manchester was that in 1830. 756 01:02:44,600 --> 01:02:51,230 And Friedrich Engels fell upon Manchester by accident. 757 01:02:51,230 --> 01:02:53,540 It transformed him. 758 01:02:53,540 --> 01:02:56,750 It transformed many parts of the world. 759 01:02:56,750 --> 01:03:02,615 And Manchester was the-- 760 01:03:06,027 --> 01:03:08,190 I'm just worried about time. 761 01:03:08,190 --> 01:03:10,120 There's so many pieces to this story. 762 01:03:13,290 --> 01:03:20,880 The story of this part of urbanization 763 01:03:20,880 --> 01:03:27,220 can also be told as the story of the encounter with disease. 764 01:03:27,220 --> 01:03:35,610 I mean, 200 million people died of the plague in Europe. 765 01:03:35,610 --> 01:03:39,720 The Black Death which killed a third of the population 766 01:03:39,720 --> 01:03:53,890 of Europe enters our story of London 767 01:03:53,890 --> 01:03:56,780 when we deal with London on Tuesday. 768 01:03:56,780 --> 01:04:04,150 In 1666, one of the people I will feature 769 01:04:04,150 --> 01:04:08,050 dies of the plague, dies intestate in these-- 770 01:04:11,540 --> 01:04:13,430 we'll tell that story on Monday-- 771 01:04:13,430 --> 01:04:13,985 on Tuesday. 772 01:04:16,700 --> 01:04:22,190 The correlation between health and disease, 773 01:04:22,190 --> 01:04:26,390 between health and the improvement against disease, 774 01:04:26,390 --> 01:04:29,670 is interesting. 775 01:04:29,670 --> 01:04:34,050 When cholera threatened in 1832, cities like New York, Boston, 776 01:04:34,050 --> 01:04:36,210 New Haven, New York, and Philadelphia 777 01:04:36,210 --> 01:04:40,560 still had pigs roaming the streets, in 1832. 778 01:04:40,560 --> 01:04:45,300 Sewage flowed in open ditches along major arteries. 779 01:04:45,300 --> 01:04:49,170 Mud and ice plagued unpaved streets. 780 01:04:49,170 --> 01:04:54,410 And decaying garbage could be found everywhere. 781 01:04:54,410 --> 01:04:57,590 The rest are reports from American towns 782 01:04:57,590 --> 01:04:59,810 of similar conditions. 783 01:04:59,810 --> 01:05:17,040 What is interesting is that decline in epidemic diseases-- 784 01:05:17,040 --> 01:05:20,550 smallpox, whooping cough, all of them-- 785 01:05:20,550 --> 01:05:21,555 follow this pattern. 786 01:05:29,720 --> 01:05:34,400 The introduction of chemical antibiotics in medicine 787 01:05:34,400 --> 01:05:38,630 occurs when the disease is virtually at its end. 788 01:05:38,630 --> 01:05:42,590 All of this prevention of disease 789 01:05:42,590 --> 01:05:44,765 occurs through environmental control. 790 01:05:50,040 --> 01:05:53,700 The correlation between income and health 791 01:05:53,700 --> 01:05:56,160 is being proved by the World Health Organization 792 01:05:56,160 --> 01:05:56,925 over and over. 793 01:05:59,950 --> 01:06:10,990 In 1899 to 1902, the British fought a war in South Africa 794 01:06:10,990 --> 01:06:12,670 called the Anglo-Boer War. 795 01:06:16,750 --> 01:06:23,200 In evaluating men for the British Army, 796 01:06:23,200 --> 01:06:28,030 they found that only a percentage of Englishmen 797 01:06:28,030 --> 01:06:32,530 were capable of serving in the military. 798 01:06:32,530 --> 01:06:38,350 Such was the state, the miserable state, of health. 799 01:06:38,350 --> 01:06:48,490 But over time, the changes in the environmental condition 800 01:06:48,490 --> 01:06:55,520 of cities like Manchester, although sporadic and due 801 01:06:55,520 --> 01:07:02,690 to phenomena such as charity or British experiments 802 01:07:02,690 --> 01:07:07,010 with charitable institutions, the invention 803 01:07:07,010 --> 01:07:10,640 of social housing, the fact that the state would actually 804 01:07:10,640 --> 01:07:16,100 play a role in providing housing was all a phenomenon 805 01:07:16,100 --> 01:07:18,770 of the British creation. 806 01:07:24,860 --> 01:07:30,710 But they didn't succeed in many circumstances. 807 01:07:30,710 --> 01:07:37,550 I will show you a slide which showed the case of housing 808 01:07:37,550 --> 01:07:44,180 in Scotland only a few years hence, at least a few years 809 01:07:44,180 --> 01:07:48,050 past, still in abominable condition. 810 01:07:51,460 --> 01:07:58,840 We move on to a set of policies and changes 811 01:07:58,840 --> 01:08:07,510 which were fundamental in making this jump from the 19th century 812 01:08:07,510 --> 01:08:15,370 emergence of the industrial city to the condition 813 01:08:15,370 --> 01:08:22,460 of emancipation that I think everybody 814 01:08:22,460 --> 01:08:32,078 has been wondering about since the Great British achievement. 815 01:08:32,078 --> 01:08:33,620 Let's look at some of these pictures. 816 01:08:36,130 --> 01:08:40,649 This is Pugin's famous depiction-- 817 01:08:40,649 --> 01:08:51,399 the upper image is of 1440 and the lower image is of 1840. 818 01:08:51,399 --> 01:08:54,819 Look at what he's conceives of in 1840. 819 01:08:54,819 --> 01:09:02,880 The water system, the river, is now enclosed by factories. 820 01:09:05,880 --> 01:09:11,660 The determination in the above slide 821 01:09:11,660 --> 01:09:18,240 of tall religious buildings is diminished. 822 01:09:18,240 --> 01:09:22,710 Maybe one or two survive. 823 01:09:22,710 --> 01:09:23,640 What is this? 824 01:09:26,359 --> 01:09:28,618 AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] 825 01:09:28,618 --> 01:09:30,410 JULIAN BEINART: But it's got a particular-- 826 01:09:30,410 --> 01:09:31,566 AUDIENCE: Panopticon? 827 01:09:31,566 --> 01:09:32,899 JULIAN BEINART: Panopticon, yes. 828 01:09:35,569 --> 01:09:40,430 How he conceives of a panopticon in England in 1840, 829 01:09:40,430 --> 01:09:43,490 I don't know. 830 01:09:43,490 --> 01:09:47,420 They were invented in England by Bentham. 831 01:09:47,420 --> 01:09:52,970 But it's strange that he would place a panopticon so centrally 832 01:09:52,970 --> 01:09:59,320 in the image of an industrial city. 833 01:09:59,320 --> 01:10:01,700 There's a church. 834 01:10:01,700 --> 01:10:04,310 It's all a very strange composition. 835 01:10:07,580 --> 01:10:11,720 He identifies the Catholic city of 1440 836 01:10:11,720 --> 01:10:17,090 and the industrial city of these steam pipe 837 01:10:17,090 --> 01:10:20,595 towers as living together some how. 838 01:10:20,595 --> 01:10:21,095 Next. 839 01:10:26,860 --> 01:10:41,680 Manchester in 1850-- sewage running into a public waterway. 840 01:10:41,680 --> 01:10:42,180 Next. 841 01:10:52,970 --> 01:11:00,020 Manchester and Liverpool, imports, exports, 842 01:11:00,020 --> 01:11:04,890 railway mileage in Britain-- you can take almost any graph 1840, 843 01:11:04,890 --> 01:11:08,450 1845, 1850. 844 01:11:08,450 --> 01:11:14,540 The railway system in England predicted the invention 845 01:11:14,540 --> 01:11:18,560 of the use of railways in urban situations. 846 01:11:18,560 --> 01:11:22,670 In 1876, the first subway in London, 847 01:11:22,670 --> 01:11:29,660 on the northeast of London, was connected to a suburban system. 848 01:11:29,660 --> 01:11:33,740 An enormously foresighted-- one of the reasons 849 01:11:33,740 --> 01:11:38,360 London is at such a low density compared to Paris 850 01:11:38,360 --> 01:11:39,780 is the railway system. 851 01:11:39,780 --> 01:11:40,280 Next. 852 01:11:43,960 --> 01:11:54,720 The plan of a street in an enclosure in Manchester, 853 01:11:54,720 --> 01:11:56,955 tunneled 2 foot 10 inches wide. 854 01:11:59,810 --> 01:12:09,940 It's 3 [INAUDIBLE] Glasgow, an overcrowded dwelling still 855 01:12:09,940 --> 01:12:16,970 in existence in 1948-- 856 01:12:16,970 --> 01:12:26,420 amongst the many critiques of health in the British slum 857 01:12:26,420 --> 01:12:31,100 are the drugging of children, incest, 858 01:12:31,100 --> 01:12:33,710 people sleeping in the same bed. 859 01:12:33,710 --> 01:12:42,850 Here is a plan of an overcrowded dwelling 860 01:12:42,850 --> 01:12:46,120 still in existence in 1948-- 861 01:12:46,120 --> 01:12:49,570 built-in bed, man, wife, child, and two girls; 862 01:12:49,570 --> 01:12:55,270 single bed, three boys; mattress on floor, girl on mattress. 863 01:12:58,865 --> 01:12:59,365 Next. 864 01:13:03,550 --> 01:13:05,140 Mumford's-- on the left-- 865 01:13:05,140 --> 01:13:11,060 Coketown-- the imposition of an order of time 866 01:13:11,060 --> 01:13:17,030 on people's lives, which was different to the time structure 867 01:13:17,030 --> 01:13:18,940 in rural life-- 868 01:13:18,940 --> 01:13:26,925 it was the kind of condition of being enslaved by time. 869 01:13:30,930 --> 01:13:35,130 The other critiques of 19th century industrial 870 01:13:35,130 --> 01:13:40,530 was that it had absolutely no respect for nature, 871 01:13:40,530 --> 01:13:48,990 that it used land as possibility of development 872 01:13:48,990 --> 01:13:51,930 independent of what its outcomes would 873 01:13:51,930 --> 01:13:57,471 be on natural systems such as water, sloping land, and so on. 874 01:13:57,471 --> 01:13:57,971 Next. 875 01:14:02,581 --> 01:14:11,370 A warning-- been invited by the commissioner-- 876 01:14:11,370 --> 01:14:13,620 in the pest-house of the metropolis, 877 01:14:13,620 --> 01:14:17,300 the disgrace to the nation, the main thoroughfares are still 878 01:14:17,300 --> 01:14:19,920 without common sewers-- 879 01:14:19,920 --> 01:14:21,810 rates from time to-- 880 01:14:21,810 --> 01:14:23,010 and so on. 881 01:14:23,010 --> 01:14:25,170 Unless something be done speedily 882 01:14:25,170 --> 01:14:29,230 to allay the growing discontent of the people, 883 01:14:29,230 --> 01:14:34,080 retributive justice in her salutory vengeance will-- 884 01:14:34,080 --> 01:14:35,760 and so on and so on. 885 01:14:35,760 --> 01:14:39,390 Here's cholera protesting to Baron Haussmann 886 01:14:39,390 --> 01:14:42,630 that the disease-- 887 01:14:42,630 --> 01:14:45,430 and so on and so on. 888 01:14:45,430 --> 01:14:45,930 Next. 889 01:14:50,740 --> 01:14:57,430 A commons environment-- land subdivided into strips 890 01:14:57,430 --> 01:15:05,710 on the left, enclosed off the common land, the same village. 891 01:15:05,710 --> 01:15:11,650 Now these are objects or sites for development. 892 01:15:11,650 --> 01:15:13,780 Next. 893 01:15:13,780 --> 01:15:16,720 And the pattern of future industrialization 894 01:15:16,720 --> 01:15:18,550 follows the pattern on the left. 895 01:15:22,010 --> 01:15:27,200 The first of the British reactions to bylaws 896 01:15:27,200 --> 01:15:28,920 standardizing housing-- 897 01:15:28,920 --> 01:15:36,550 this is in the East London. 898 01:15:36,550 --> 01:15:37,930 Next. 899 01:15:37,930 --> 01:15:44,440 OK, on Tuesday, we will deal with the marvelous 900 01:15:44,440 --> 01:15:48,840 story of London's 19th century development.