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PROFESSOR: What stresses you?

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You don't have to divulge
something deeply personal, but

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in a general way stresses
people?

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AUDIENCE: Lack of sleep

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PROFESSOR: Yeah,
lack of sleep's

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a pretty good stressor.

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AUDIENCE: Exams.

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PROFESSOR: Exams and
stuff like that,

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grades stuff like that.

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What else?

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So let's make up some things.

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Exams and grades if you're
student, right?

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Deadlines of any kind throughout
your life will

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stress you.

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Traffic when you're trying to
get to the airport to make

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that flight, or trying to get
to your job interview and

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traffic is twice as bad
as you thought.

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Somebody in front of you
seem to be driving

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exceptionally slowly.

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Sometimes family relationships,
I think even in

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happy families, there's points
of stress in terms of a how

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different views are
dealt with.

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Maybe if you're a college
student, what the rest of your

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life will be like, where it's
not four years all set out in

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front of you approximately,
right?

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But what the rest of your life
will be about and mean that

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can be a stress if people talk
too much it to you about that.

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What does not stress you
compared to what we might

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imagine throughout evolution
was stressful for

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mammals like us?

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You're mostly not worrying about
being eaten or eating

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another person for
dinner, right?

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OK that's not an everyday stress
for you, but that's an

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everyday stress for mammals
who're trying to survive

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because they're the food of
another group, right?

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And trying to get their
own food to live.

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So the kinds of stressors we now
have in an industrialized

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economy or post-industrial
economy is incredibly

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different than the stressors
that occurred

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for most of our evolution.

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And I'm going to take a lot of
these points from a wonderful

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book from a wonderful researcher
and writer, Robert

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Sapolsky, Why Zebras
Don't Get Ulcers.

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He asks in that sense what
stresses a zebra?

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They're not worried about exams
and deadlines and MCATS

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and things like this, right?

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OK what are the forms of
stress that they face.

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And they're things like serious
physical injury,

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predators and starvation, very
fundamental things about

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living and surviving.

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Not careers, jobs, timetables,
the kind of world we mostly

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live in, unless we have
a health threat.

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And so what stress is, is
the psychological and

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physiological response to a
stimulus, a stressor, that

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alters the body's equilibrium.

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And when we talk about stress we
can talk about two forms of

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it-- acute, what's
instantaneous; and chronic

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what's consistent and goes on.

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So acute, physical stress would
be an injury, chronic

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things are hunger or cancer,
long term problems.

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An acute psychological stress
would be a deadline, a chronic

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one would be chronic work
pressure if you have it

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throughout the semester.

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An acute stressor socially is
humiliation, a chronic one

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might be isolation.

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And we'll come back a little
bit actually to social

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rejection as a stressor
later on.

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So, Sapolsky's idea is this,
that for animals in the

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wilderness, and for us maybe for
a long time in evolution,

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stress is typically acute,
physical, and responsive.

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Something happens, it's about
your bodily survival,

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and then you act.

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For people in the world we live
in, in this room, stress

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is often chronic,
psychosocial--

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it's not a physical threat
mostly that's happening to

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you, it's something about your
sense of yourself in the

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world, how you relate
to people, how you

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relate to your goals--

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and it's anticipatory--

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we talked about it for
pleasure also, the

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anticipation of reward turns on
your dopamine system once

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you know what the reward will
be, not the reward itself.

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But when it comes to fearful
things, we also know that we

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can have dread.

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We dread upcoming things for
quite some time before they

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even get here if we think
they're going to be pretty

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unpleasant.

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And there's a neat study from
Greg Berns about the

00:04:48.350 --> 00:04:51.640
neurobiology of dread
in people.

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So it's an fMRI study, and in
a way that was approved by

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human subjects.

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They were waiting for a
cutaneous electrical

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shock to the foot.

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So it's a shock that's enough
to be unpleasant but not

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enough to be dangerous.

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And people signed up voluntarily
to do it, and at

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each trial you sit
in the scanner.

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You're told what's the voltage
level is going to be, compared

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to the most unpleasant they use
in that experiment, and

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how long until it comes.

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So the voltage is how painful
it's going to be, the duration

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of time, and something about how
long dread can develop in

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anticipation of a painful
stimulus.

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And at first you just got the
got the warning, and here

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comes the pain.

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After a while, you get a
choice and this is the

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interesting thing.

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Would you rather get, for
example you could think about

00:05:37.770 --> 00:05:41.360
this, 90% voltage, that is,
9/10 as bad as the whole

00:05:41.360 --> 00:05:43.970
experiment ever has it,
in three seconds--

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so something pretty painful,
pretty fast--

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or would you rather have 60%
voltage in 27 seconds.

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So you can decide for yourself,
which would you

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rather have?

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And you can see the

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trading-off in people's choices--

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the actual physical pain, which
is greater than 90%

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versus the period of dread, the
anticipation of something

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miserable coming up in the case
where it's less pain but

00:06:07.310 --> 00:06:08.790
a longer run up.

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And what they found is that
people varied in interesting

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ways, and they find
some [INAUDIBLE]

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of this, but they found that
what they call the extreme

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dreaders, that they would prefer
more voltage now than

00:06:18.920 --> 00:06:21.410
to wait for any shock
later on.

00:06:21.410 --> 00:06:25.440
Like, get it over with now, it's
more painful for me to

00:06:25.440 --> 00:06:27.130
sit there and wait for something
even though there's

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no painful stimulus than to
just get it over with now.

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And maybe we all know the relief
that when we anticipate

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something bad, having it happen
sometimes is almost a

00:06:34.670 --> 00:06:39.070
relief to be past all that
miserable dread.

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So, where in the brain does
some of this occur?

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So, one area that we'll come
back to-- a couple different

00:06:45.320 --> 00:06:47.830
areas-- one area I want to focus
on is this middle of the

00:06:47.830 --> 00:06:50.380
brain, this area called
the cingulate.

00:06:50.380 --> 00:06:54.100
And here, regardless of time and
in all subjects, the more

00:06:54.100 --> 00:06:56.850
voltage you got, the bigger
the brain response.

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OK, that's not very surprising,
it's in a part of

00:06:59.230 --> 00:07:00.890
the brain-- we'll come to this
a little bit later-- that's

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involved in the interpretation
of pain.

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More voltage you get, it's easy
to interpret it as worse.

00:07:07.290 --> 00:07:08.820
And then you say, what's the
difference in the people who

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are the extreme dreaders, the
people who would say no matter

00:07:11.850 --> 00:07:15.430
how bad the pain, I would rather
have it now than wait

00:07:15.430 --> 00:07:18.470
for a lesser pain for
a few more seconds.

00:07:18.470 --> 00:07:21.080
Give me the worst now, I have
to get it over with.

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And what they found in the
brains of those individuals,

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shown in red in this figure, is
that even before anything

00:07:27.450 --> 00:07:30.970
was coming on in the same brain
areas that responded to

00:07:30.970 --> 00:07:35.100
the pain, there was a rise in
activation as if the pain was

00:07:35.100 --> 00:07:36.110
already happening.

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The same areas that are involved
in responding to the

00:07:38.670 --> 00:07:42.090
pain, especially in the people
who dreaded it the most, who

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would take more pain now to
avoid the wait, those parts of

00:07:46.240 --> 00:07:50.170
the brain are already showing
a pain-like response before

00:07:50.170 --> 00:07:52.040
anything has arrived,
a physical

00:07:52.040 --> 00:07:53.390
manifestation of dread.

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So let's go back to mortality
for a moment.

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So, in 1900, think about this,
what were the major causes of

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death in the United States?

00:08:04.670 --> 00:08:07.680
And they were mostly from
infectious disease and

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childbirth.

00:08:08.320 --> 00:08:11.800
Childbirth was extremely
dangerous in 1900.

00:08:11.800 --> 00:08:15.100
So the most common causes
of death were pneumonia,

00:08:15.100 --> 00:08:16.600
tuberculosis,--

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if you know about this it won't
surprise you, but if you

00:08:18.940 --> 00:08:20.720
haven't studied this in
history recently--

00:08:20.720 --> 00:08:25.740
influenza, flu, in 1918 it
killed more Americans than

00:08:25.740 --> 00:08:29.520
World War I, which was high at
that year it was killing many,

00:08:29.520 --> 00:08:32.059
many people, and childbirth
and especially of course,

00:08:32.059 --> 00:08:33.860
that's going to be
in young women.

00:08:33.860 --> 00:08:38.230
How about a few years ago in
2007, which is roughly now,

00:08:38.230 --> 00:08:40.000
how many people are dying
of these things?

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Not so many in the United
States, they're dying of

00:08:43.100 --> 00:08:45.580
diseases that are conceptualized
as cumulative

00:08:45.580 --> 00:08:48.950
damage diseases, not an
infection but things like

00:08:48.950 --> 00:08:51.790
heart disease, where over many
years a combination of

00:08:51.790 --> 00:08:57.080
lifestyle and stress might
harm your heart function,

00:08:57.080 --> 00:09:01.420
might promote the growth of
cancer, might promote a stroke

00:09:01.420 --> 00:09:04.500
or cerebral-vascular disorders
including stroke.

00:09:04.500 --> 00:09:08.140
And many of these diseases are
viewed as a combination of

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long-term lifestyle things,
maybe exposure to toxins in

00:09:11.920 --> 00:09:14.180
the environment, and some
mixtures of those.

00:09:14.180 --> 00:09:19.780
Not a one-time, one-shot
infection or child delivery,

00:09:19.780 --> 00:09:22.170
but long slow processes
that finally

00:09:22.170 --> 00:09:24.970
culminate in mortality.

00:09:24.970 --> 00:09:28.310
So, many of our current ideas
about stress come from a

00:09:28.310 --> 00:09:32.570
researcher named Hans Selye And
in the 1930's, it turns

00:09:32.570 --> 00:09:34.870
out, he's one of the main people
thinking about stress

00:09:34.870 --> 00:09:37.670
as an important thing in our
life, but he was infamously

00:09:37.670 --> 00:09:41.130
not good for his handling of
rats in the laboratory.

00:09:41.130 --> 00:09:44.010
Now have any of you
handled rats in a

00:09:44.010 --> 00:09:46.160
laboratory by your hands?

00:09:46.160 --> 00:09:48.010
I see one hand going up
there, any others?

00:09:48.010 --> 00:09:51.850
OK, how easy is it
to handle them ?

00:09:51.850 --> 00:09:54.120
When you pick them up and do
stuff, are they like thank you

00:09:54.120 --> 00:09:57.480
very much, I knew it was time
for injection or time for

00:09:57.480 --> 00:09:59.860
feeding or whatever
you do with them?

00:09:59.860 --> 00:10:00.540
No?

00:10:00.540 --> 00:10:02.820
Are they kind of squirreling
around a lot and wiggling and

00:10:02.820 --> 00:10:05.820
not very happy when you pick
them up, on the whole?

00:10:05.820 --> 00:10:08.260
About as happy as we would be
if a giant picked us up and

00:10:08.260 --> 00:10:12.040
shook us, and injected us with
the stuff for the day?

00:10:12.040 --> 00:10:17.870
I was only involved in one rat
experiment ever and I can't

00:10:17.870 --> 00:10:19.870
claim to be a great success like
Selye , but I can claim

00:10:19.870 --> 00:10:21.520
to be as bad as he was
with handling rats.

00:10:21.520 --> 00:10:23.790
Because it was kind of scary,
they were really mean and want

00:10:23.790 --> 00:10:24.340
to get out of your hand.

00:10:24.340 --> 00:10:25.590
Of course, from their
perspective they're just

00:10:25.590 --> 00:10:27.960
trying to live the life they
were meant to lead and you're

00:10:27.960 --> 00:10:29.700
fighting with them and you're
forcing them into this thing

00:10:29.700 --> 00:10:30.870
that thing to get injected, and

00:10:30.870 --> 00:10:33.930
they're squirreling around.

00:10:33.930 --> 00:10:35.650
So, he was doing an experiment
where they had extracted

00:10:35.650 --> 00:10:37.340
ovarian chemical, and they were
trying to figure out what

00:10:37.340 --> 00:10:38.210
it does at the time.

00:10:38.210 --> 00:10:40.460
He injected the rats daily.

00:10:40.460 --> 00:10:43.620
And he was pretty bad, by his
own admission, he would drop

00:10:43.620 --> 00:10:46.360
them on the floor and they would
scurry behind tables.

00:10:46.360 --> 00:10:48.880
He would hunt them down
and drag them out.

00:10:48.880 --> 00:10:50.970
And he would do this day in,
day out for months because

00:10:50.970 --> 00:10:53.540
they were on a daily
experimental schedule.

00:10:53.540 --> 00:10:56.490
And what he found, after
months of this sort of

00:10:56.490 --> 00:10:59.960
inadvertent nonstop stressing of
the rats, because of course

00:10:59.960 --> 00:11:02.300
the better thing to do if you're
skilled is to just pick

00:11:02.300 --> 00:11:03.660
them up with authority,
inject them, and

00:11:03.660 --> 00:11:05.710
put them back, right?

00:11:05.710 --> 00:11:09.030
All the fighting and stuff from
the poor handling is not

00:11:09.030 --> 00:11:10.680
making them any happier.

00:11:10.680 --> 00:11:14.210
What he found in them is peptic
ulcers, ulcers in their

00:11:14.210 --> 00:11:18.930
eating system, enlarged adrenal
glands, shrunken

00:11:18.930 --> 00:11:21.920
immune tissue, but it wasn't
about the ovarian chemical, it

00:11:21.920 --> 00:11:23.260
was also in his control rats.

00:11:23.260 --> 00:11:26.330
Basically he was giving all
of them stress-induced

00:11:26.330 --> 00:11:28.760
physiological changes.

00:11:28.760 --> 00:11:31.640
And what he was impressed by,
and many other people too, is

00:11:31.640 --> 00:11:35.410
that you can expose rats to a
whole huge range of stressors,

00:11:35.410 --> 00:11:38.330
different things you do in their
environment, and they

00:11:38.330 --> 00:11:42.260
all seem to converge on these
ulcers, these enlarged adrenal

00:11:42.260 --> 00:11:44.340
glands, and shrunken
immune tissue.

00:11:44.340 --> 00:11:46.190
A lot of different things that
can stress you seem to

00:11:46.190 --> 00:11:49.330
converge upon a common
biological pathway and

00:11:49.330 --> 00:11:51.320
consequences for the animal.

00:11:51.320 --> 00:11:54.340
So stress response is similar in
a broad array of stressors,

00:11:54.340 --> 00:11:57.620
and if they go on for too long,
people get sick, the

00:11:57.620 --> 00:11:59.360
chronic stress.

00:11:59.360 --> 00:12:02.780
So, you remember from your
introductory biology courses

00:12:02.780 --> 00:12:05.600
and so on, that when we talk
about the autonomic nervous

00:12:05.600 --> 00:12:07.780
system in people, there's
a sympathetic and

00:12:07.780 --> 00:12:09.890
parasympathetic branch.

00:12:09.890 --> 00:12:13.060
The sympathetic goes from the
brain to the spine to organs

00:12:13.060 --> 00:12:15.940
to blood vessels to sweat glands
to muscles and hairs,

00:12:15.940 --> 00:12:17.580
that's why you get goosebumps
when you're scared.

00:12:17.580 --> 00:12:20.450
That's the nerves innervating,
that's when your

00:12:20.450 --> 00:12:22.030
hair stands on end.

00:12:22.030 --> 00:12:24.610
It turns on for emergency
situations, arousal,

00:12:24.610 --> 00:12:25.800
activation--

00:12:25.800 --> 00:12:28.730
the famous joke that it's
related to the four F's,

00:12:28.730 --> 00:12:32.280
flight fright, and sex.

00:12:32.280 --> 00:12:33.760
I was so afraid I'd mess
it up, I couldn't

00:12:33.760 --> 00:12:35.440
read the four word--

00:12:35.440 --> 00:12:37.550
flight, fright fight, and sex.

00:12:37.550 --> 00:12:39.880
And it releases epinephrine
and norepinephrine.

00:12:39.880 --> 00:12:40.800
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
is the same thing as

00:12:40.800 --> 00:12:42.810
adrenaline and noradrenaline,
one's English-American, and

00:12:42.810 --> 00:12:45.580
one's American-American,
same thing.

00:12:45.580 --> 00:12:49.760
The parasympathetic is your
zen, couch-potato system.

00:12:49.760 --> 00:12:53.285
It operates highly when you're
asleep or you're eating or

00:12:53.285 --> 00:12:55.650
you're relaxing.

00:12:55.650 --> 00:12:57.560
And so you can talk about
different organs and how

00:12:57.560 --> 00:13:00.790
they're responding to the two
kinds of systems when one is

00:13:00.790 --> 00:13:03.870
up and one is down they're in
mutual opposition or balance.

00:13:03.870 --> 00:13:06.240
So in the heart, when you're
sympathetic, when you have to

00:13:06.240 --> 00:13:09.170
activate a run from being
attacked and your heart rate

00:13:09.170 --> 00:13:11.515
speeds up, your parasympathetic
system will

00:13:11.515 --> 00:13:12.840
turn it down.

00:13:12.840 --> 00:13:15.460
For the blood it's seceded to
muscles, and when you're in

00:13:15.460 --> 00:13:18.110
sympathetic action and when
you're in parasympathetic

00:13:18.110 --> 00:13:20.800
relaxation it's drawn from the
muscles to other organs.

00:13:23.480 --> 00:13:26.360
Part of that response too is
the hypothalamus, which

00:13:26.360 --> 00:13:28.740
releases corticotropin releasing
hormone to the

00:13:28.740 --> 00:13:30.310
anterior pituitary.

00:13:30.310 --> 00:13:34.140
In about 15 seconds that
releases ACTH into the blood,

00:13:34.140 --> 00:13:36.540
that reaches the kidney and
a few minutes later that

00:13:36.540 --> 00:13:39.770
produces glucocorticoids, or
steroids, or cortisol, that's

00:13:39.770 --> 00:13:42.980
often used as a marker for
stress response, a brain to

00:13:42.980 --> 00:13:48.940
hypothalamus to pituitary
to kidney circuit.

00:13:48.940 --> 00:13:53.190
And then we can talk about how
what can be adaptive response

00:13:53.190 --> 00:13:56.900
in an acute emergency can become
maladaptive if it's

00:13:56.900 --> 00:13:59.760
chronic and happens over
and over again.

00:13:59.760 --> 00:14:03.180
So mobilization of energy good
when you're escaping danger,

00:14:03.180 --> 00:14:05.600
but if you have it all the time
maybe it leads to muscle

00:14:05.600 --> 00:14:08.200
weakness, myopathy, fatigue
or diabetes.

00:14:08.200 --> 00:14:12.060
Increased cardiovascular tone
good for escaping danger,

00:14:12.060 --> 00:14:14.360
stress-induced hypertension
not good.

00:14:14.360 --> 00:14:19.140
Suppression of digestion, you
don't want to start to spend

00:14:19.140 --> 00:14:21.950
energy on digestion when you're
running for your life

00:14:21.950 --> 00:14:24.400
but if you suppress it too
much it's associated with

00:14:24.400 --> 00:14:26.170
ulceration and colitis.

00:14:26.170 --> 00:14:28.110
Suppression of growth-- we'll
come to that-- if you're in a

00:14:28.110 --> 00:14:32.740
growth period of your life,
that's metabolically expensive

00:14:32.740 --> 00:14:34.040
to do, growth.

00:14:34.040 --> 00:14:37.020
You turn off growth mechanisms
briefly when you're in

00:14:37.020 --> 00:14:39.490
sympathetic action.

00:14:39.490 --> 00:14:43.330
Reproduction is turned off or
down, too much of that may

00:14:43.330 --> 00:14:46.160
lead to impotency
loss of libido.

00:14:46.160 --> 00:14:48.070
Suppression of the immune
system, again you're turning

00:14:48.070 --> 00:14:51.530
down energy spent on immune
processes temporarily for

00:14:51.530 --> 00:14:53.910
emergency, too much of that
you could have increased

00:14:53.910 --> 00:14:55.180
disease risk.

00:14:55.180 --> 00:14:57.390
Sharpening of cognition,
you want to be as smart

00:14:57.390 --> 00:14:58.290
as you can be, right?

00:14:58.290 --> 00:15:01.580
Under danger circumstances,
having your system in high

00:15:01.580 --> 00:15:04.240
gear all the time can lead to
neuronal death, and I'll show

00:15:04.240 --> 00:15:07.040
you an example of hippocampal
shrinkage that occurs with

00:15:07.040 --> 00:15:09.070
stress in that way.

00:15:09.070 --> 00:15:13.200
So everything that can be
adaptive in one hand, can be

00:15:13.200 --> 00:15:17.350
related to stress-related
disorders on the other hand in

00:15:17.350 --> 00:15:20.290
the heart or in the arteries.

00:15:20.290 --> 00:15:24.350
And here's a picture
of a stomach ulcer.

00:15:24.350 --> 00:15:25.850
We'll come back to that because
the ulcer is one of

00:15:25.850 --> 00:15:28.490
the great interesting stories of
the second half of the last

00:15:28.490 --> 00:15:30.720
century, is the complete
re-interpretation of why

00:15:30.720 --> 00:15:33.260
people get ulcers.

00:15:33.260 --> 00:15:35.460
So, let's talk about that now.

00:15:35.460 --> 00:15:38.300
So, the adaptive response when
you're in an emergency is to

00:15:38.300 --> 00:15:39.670
suppress digestion,
that's part of

00:15:39.670 --> 00:15:42.120
the sympathetic response.

00:15:42.120 --> 00:15:45.770
And stress has long been
associated with getting ulcers

00:15:45.770 --> 00:15:48.330
which are holes in the
walls of your organ.

00:15:48.330 --> 00:15:50.930
Now, for many, many, many
years, physicians and

00:15:50.930 --> 00:15:54.370
scientists thought that getting
ulcers in adults was

00:15:54.370 --> 00:15:58.150
associated with a combination
of stress and diet.

00:15:58.150 --> 00:16:00.670
And people who had ulcers were
told try to have less stress

00:16:00.670 --> 00:16:03.970
in your life and eat
more bland food.

00:16:03.970 --> 00:16:06.430
And then Robert Warren and Barry
Marshall won the Nobel

00:16:06.430 --> 00:16:07.670
Prize in 2005.

00:16:07.670 --> 00:16:10.320
But this is one of those stories
in science where

00:16:10.320 --> 00:16:15.160
everybody literally ridiculed
these people in conferences

00:16:15.160 --> 00:16:18.560
and papers they were literally
ridiculed by the entire

00:16:18.560 --> 00:16:21.890
orthodox scientific field,
because they put forth the

00:16:21.890 --> 00:16:23.950
idea, which had been around a
little bit but they really

00:16:23.950 --> 00:16:28.340
pushed it, that this was due not
to the combination of diet

00:16:28.340 --> 00:16:32.870
and stress but it was due to an
actual specific bacterium.

00:16:32.870 --> 00:16:34.440
And people thought that's
ridiculous because our

00:16:34.440 --> 00:16:37.810
stomachs are so acidic that no
bacterium would survive in the

00:16:37.810 --> 00:16:40.560
acidic environment of our
stomachs long enough to do any

00:16:40.560 --> 00:16:43.510
harm in this sort
of chronic way.

00:16:43.510 --> 00:16:46.300
And part of the way, as they
struggled to get data, they

00:16:46.300 --> 00:16:49.990
did these kind of funny
experiments where Marshall

00:16:49.990 --> 00:16:52.510
went and took the bacterium they
suspected and actually

00:16:52.510 --> 00:16:55.510
swallowed it to see what
would happen, OK?

00:16:55.510 --> 00:16:58.720
This kind of weird, heroic
self medical experiment.

00:16:58.720 --> 00:17:01.810
And he thought, like in 10 years
I'll see if I have an

00:17:01.810 --> 00:17:04.420
ulcer, but what happened is
within a couple of days he was

00:17:04.420 --> 00:17:06.869
having severe gastritis, severe
disturbance of the

00:17:06.869 --> 00:17:08.660
stomach, and that was
the first piece of

00:17:08.660 --> 00:17:11.400
evidence they could do.

00:17:11.400 --> 00:17:13.190
He couldn't find out if he would
have an ulcer in the

00:17:13.190 --> 00:17:15.839
long run because his wife made
him take medications right

00:17:15.839 --> 00:17:17.869
away after that.

00:17:17.869 --> 00:17:21.599
But still, that built up the
case that it's a bacterium

00:17:21.599 --> 00:17:23.300
that's swallowed that
causes the gastritis

00:17:23.300 --> 00:17:25.859
that leads to ulcers.

00:17:25.859 --> 00:17:28.210
And that if you get people
antibiotic treatments that

00:17:28.210 --> 00:17:31.680
will treat the bacterium,
they improve a lot.

00:17:31.680 --> 00:17:33.530
So, a complete re-understanding
of what

00:17:33.530 --> 00:17:35.720
caused the disorder and
how to treat it.

00:17:35.720 --> 00:17:38.640
So, some people say, well it was
never about stress, it was

00:17:38.640 --> 00:17:41.210
always about the bacterium,
that's it, it's a simple

00:17:41.210 --> 00:17:42.660
biological story.

00:17:42.660 --> 00:17:45.700
But there's two ways in which
probably stress is relevant.

00:17:45.700 --> 00:17:49.750
One of them, the milder one,
is that out 15% of cases of

00:17:49.750 --> 00:17:52.720
ulcer don't have any measurable
bacterium, they

00:17:52.720 --> 00:17:54.170
don't seem to have that, OK?

00:17:54.170 --> 00:17:56.020
So who knows about that 15%.

00:17:56.020 --> 00:17:58.340
But here's the more
amazing piece--

00:17:58.340 --> 00:18:00.720
many, many, many of us have
this bacterium, it's

00:18:00.720 --> 00:18:03.910
incredibly common widespread
bacterium.

00:18:03.910 --> 00:18:05.950
But only 10% of the people
who have the

00:18:05.950 --> 00:18:08.790
bacterium have ulcers.

00:18:08.790 --> 00:18:12.390
OK, so it seems like it's not
just about having the

00:18:12.390 --> 00:18:15.030
bacterium, but it's interaction
perhaps, between

00:18:15.030 --> 00:18:17.230
the bacterium and the stressors
of your environment.

00:18:20.570 --> 00:18:24.120
There's not many stories about
suppression of growth, but

00:18:24.120 --> 00:18:26.780
there's one historically
interesting one, so this is at

00:18:26.780 --> 00:18:29.050
the edge of science, this
is an anecdote.

00:18:29.050 --> 00:18:32.060
I'll show a clinical case, you
can't do many experiments

00:18:32.060 --> 00:18:35.800
about this, about what's called
psychogenic dwarfism,

00:18:35.800 --> 00:18:38.850
an inability to get to standard
height that's thought

00:18:38.850 --> 00:18:40.670
to be based on psychological
principles.

00:18:40.670 --> 00:18:44.960
So this is a story of a British
Victorian family,

00:18:44.960 --> 00:18:47.960
their favorite son was
killed at age 13, a

00:18:47.960 --> 00:18:50.040
tragic loss of a son.

00:18:50.040 --> 00:18:54.190
The bereaved mother takes to her
bed for years, she doesn't

00:18:54.190 --> 00:18:58.060
leave her room or bad, and
she ignores her surviving

00:18:58.060 --> 00:19:03.130
six-year-old son, constantly
idealizing the boy who passed

00:19:03.130 --> 00:19:08.360
away, having almost no interest
in the surviving son.

00:19:08.360 --> 00:19:11.000
And when he would come into the
room, bringing her food to

00:19:11.000 --> 00:19:14.440
her room as she lay in her bed
in severe depression, she

00:19:14.440 --> 00:19:16.970
would say to him David--

00:19:16.970 --> 00:19:18.710
that's the boy who
passed away--

00:19:18.710 --> 00:19:20.582
oh David is that you?

00:19:20.582 --> 00:19:23.670
Oh, it's only you, she would
say to the surviving son.

00:19:23.670 --> 00:19:27.660
So, depressed and discounting
her surviving son.

00:19:27.660 --> 00:19:30.050
David was always perfect,
the surviving son was an

00:19:30.050 --> 00:19:32.390
irritating reminder.

00:19:32.390 --> 00:19:35.920
He grew to only 5 feet as an
adult, and he's famous for

00:19:35.920 --> 00:19:37.140
writing the play Peter Pan.

00:19:37.140 --> 00:19:39.860
So the next time you see the
play, or see the movie, think

00:19:39.860 --> 00:19:44.080
about what childhood means to a
person who had this kind of

00:19:44.080 --> 00:19:47.310
childhood, and grew to
a very short stature.

00:19:47.310 --> 00:19:50.170
It was interpreted as a
psychological response to a

00:19:50.170 --> 00:19:52.500
long period of stress,
the lack of

00:19:52.500 --> 00:19:55.580
attachment from his mother.

00:19:55.580 --> 00:19:58.260
And here's a clinical case of
a child who went into a

00:19:58.260 --> 00:20:01.610
hospital, you can see this
picture of this child growing,

00:20:01.610 --> 00:20:05.700
he was in obviously a
non-supportive environment.

00:20:05.700 --> 00:20:08.670
He enters a hospital and his
growth hormone level is 5.9,

00:20:08.670 --> 00:20:10.830
it's very low.

00:20:10.830 --> 00:20:14.180
He takes to a nurse, and 100
days later it goes to 13, it

00:20:14.180 --> 00:20:14.850
more than doubles.

00:20:14.850 --> 00:20:16.750
He's gaining height
considerably.

00:20:16.750 --> 00:20:20.490
The nurse goes on vacation, he
goes back to his low levels of

00:20:20.490 --> 00:20:22.900
growth hormone and growth.

00:20:22.900 --> 00:20:26.380
She returns and he goes back to
typical growth of height.

00:20:26.380 --> 00:20:29.660
So, very psychological
relationship between his

00:20:29.660 --> 00:20:33.630
physical growth and his
relationship to the nurse.

00:20:33.630 --> 00:20:39.420
And so we understand this to be
extreme cases of emotional

00:20:39.420 --> 00:20:42.130
neglect or something like that
in the homes, these are not

00:20:42.130 --> 00:20:45.610
small spats with your parents.

00:20:45.610 --> 00:20:48.600
But again, a relationship
between a very chronic stress,

00:20:48.600 --> 00:20:53.800
an emotional one, and then
physical growth.

00:20:53.800 --> 00:20:58.180
Now this is a famous chair, and
the story goes like this.

00:20:58.180 --> 00:21:01.790
In the mid-1950's Meyer Friedman
and Ray Rosenman were

00:21:01.790 --> 00:21:04.100
cardiologists on the West
coast, and they had a

00:21:04.100 --> 00:21:05.700
cardiology practice.

00:21:05.700 --> 00:21:08.860
And they had a chair, and this
is the chair, that sat in

00:21:08.860 --> 00:21:10.140
their waiting room.

00:21:10.140 --> 00:21:14.950
And they had a guy who came, in
his name is lost to history

00:21:14.950 --> 00:21:17.390
although everybody agrees he
gets credit for beginning this

00:21:17.390 --> 00:21:22.300
idea, and his job was to
re-upholster the chairs.

00:21:22.300 --> 00:21:25.310
And he told these two
physicians, I go to a lot of

00:21:25.310 --> 00:21:28.530
places and I work in a lot of
offices, and nowhere do I go

00:21:28.530 --> 00:21:32.240
do I have to re upholster chairs
as often as I do in

00:21:32.240 --> 00:21:33.390
your office.

00:21:33.390 --> 00:21:37.040
And this triggered a thought in
these two people, because,

00:21:37.040 --> 00:21:40.690
don't forget that for many
physicians, understandably,

00:21:40.690 --> 00:21:44.700
and maybe less so now,
cardiology is like real

00:21:44.700 --> 00:21:47.860
biology and psychological stuff
is kind of peripheral

00:21:47.860 --> 00:21:50.040
and edgy, may not
really matter.

00:21:50.040 --> 00:21:54.590
OK so to Friedman and Rosenman's
credit they say

00:21:54.590 --> 00:21:55.580
what is going on?

00:21:55.580 --> 00:21:56.930
Why does our chairs
look like this?

00:21:56.930 --> 00:22:00.720
Now, sometimes you might have
that experience yourself, have

00:22:00.720 --> 00:22:04.150
you ever stood in line in a
way that's unbelievably

00:22:04.150 --> 00:22:06.290
irritating because you have
somewhere to go, and there's

00:22:06.290 --> 00:22:09.190
somebody really slow in front of
you or somebody working the

00:22:09.190 --> 00:22:10.680
line who's really slow?

00:22:10.680 --> 00:22:13.930
And you're going come on, I've
got like minutes to go here,

00:22:13.930 --> 00:22:17.740
can't I get my coffee or
my tea or whatever.

00:22:17.740 --> 00:22:20.590
Have you ever seen people jump
from line to line in grocery

00:22:20.590 --> 00:22:23.640
stores because they cannot bear,
they dread that moment

00:22:23.640 --> 00:22:26.160
when they get somebody who
gets into the line where

00:22:26.160 --> 00:22:28.320
you're supposed to have
10 and they have 12?

00:22:28.320 --> 00:22:29.650
Have you seen that?

00:22:29.650 --> 00:22:32.050
None of us think that's quite
fair play, but some of us say

00:22:32.050 --> 00:22:35.550
OK, wish they had 10 items,
and some people are really

00:22:35.550 --> 00:22:36.430
mad, right?

00:22:36.430 --> 00:22:39.220
OK, so that's type A personality
and we'll talk

00:22:39.220 --> 00:22:40.120
about that in a moment.

00:22:40.120 --> 00:22:42.440
And what they began to say is
the patients are sitting in

00:22:42.440 --> 00:22:44.580
the office, fidgeting,
fidgeting, fidgeting, where's

00:22:44.580 --> 00:22:44.910
the doctor?

00:22:44.910 --> 00:22:45.370
Where's the doctor?

00:22:45.370 --> 00:22:46.970
I have important things to do.

00:22:46.970 --> 00:22:50.140
And they're wearing down the
arms and the chair because

00:22:50.140 --> 00:22:53.080
they're so fidgety waiting for
that appointment to happen.

00:22:53.080 --> 00:22:55.730
Not just for one moment but for
a long time and they're

00:22:55.730 --> 00:22:57.530
literally wearing
down the chair.

00:22:57.530 --> 00:23:00.240
And they're showing up at a
high rate to a cardiology

00:23:00.240 --> 00:23:03.460
practice of people with
heart problems.

00:23:03.460 --> 00:23:07.510
And that's developed this idea
that a huge threat--

00:23:07.510 --> 00:23:10.870
and I'll qualify this
in a moment

00:23:10.870 --> 00:23:12.325
with subsequent studies--

00:23:12.325 --> 00:23:15.960
but in the 1960's, that type A
personality, you've heard that

00:23:15.960 --> 00:23:17.990
phrase perhaps, type A
personalities, this is where

00:23:17.990 --> 00:23:18.670
that began.

00:23:18.670 --> 00:23:20.550
It's become a widespread term.

00:23:20.550 --> 00:23:22.290
These are people who are
immensely competitive,

00:23:22.290 --> 00:23:24.610
over-achieving, time-pressured,
impatient,

00:23:24.610 --> 00:23:27.190
hostile, and they have
increased risk of

00:23:27.190 --> 00:23:28.300
cardiovascular disease.

00:23:28.300 --> 00:23:31.330
And in the first analyses, the
risk if you had this kind of

00:23:31.330 --> 00:23:33.760
personality was equal to
smoking or very high

00:23:33.760 --> 00:23:34.520
cholesterol.

00:23:34.520 --> 00:23:37.200
I mean, there's a very high
risk and that's why these

00:23:37.200 --> 00:23:40.420
chairs were being worn down by
the type A personalities

00:23:40.420 --> 00:23:44.370
showing up with cardiac problems
because they were

00:23:44.370 --> 00:23:49.390
stressing themselves all the
time by everyday life events.

00:23:49.390 --> 00:23:51.930
And this picture sort of--

00:23:51.930 --> 00:23:55.670
they had anecdotal things,
they had a early morning

00:23:55.670 --> 00:23:58.390
group, a patient support group
for type A individuals with

00:23:58.390 --> 00:24:01.670
cardiovascular disease to get
together and say, OK when I'm

00:24:01.670 --> 00:24:03.620
really stressed out, I'm
going to count to

00:24:03.620 --> 00:24:04.950
5 and relax, right?

00:24:04.950 --> 00:24:06.120
It was a support group.

00:24:06.120 --> 00:24:07.500
So, here is your car.

00:24:07.500 --> 00:24:10.120
So, now when you go park your
car sometimes, there's some

00:24:10.120 --> 00:24:12.830
people depending on the
situation who park forward

00:24:12.830 --> 00:24:14.220
into their spots.

00:24:14.220 --> 00:24:17.130
But if you know you have to get
away super fast and you

00:24:17.130 --> 00:24:19.740
don't have a minute to waste,
how do you park?

00:24:19.740 --> 00:24:20.940
You park backwards, right?

00:24:20.940 --> 00:24:23.700
So when you jump into your car
you can hit that accelerator

00:24:23.700 --> 00:24:25.660
and you're out in two seconds.

00:24:25.660 --> 00:24:28.240
So all of the type A people are
all lined up here, ready

00:24:28.240 --> 00:24:30.100
to race away out after
the session.

00:24:30.100 --> 00:24:33.650
And here's the middle of the day
mixed parking, some people

00:24:33.650 --> 00:24:36.090
front-end in, some people
rear-end in.

00:24:36.090 --> 00:24:38.760
These are anecdotal, but this is
the kind of thing they were

00:24:38.760 --> 00:24:41.500
noticing, that led
to these ideas.

00:24:41.500 --> 00:24:44.920
So it turns out, in subsequent
studies, that a lot of the

00:24:44.920 --> 00:24:48.770
effect wasn't as broad as they
thought, but it does apply to

00:24:48.770 --> 00:24:51.410
people who are relatively young
with cardiovascular

00:24:51.410 --> 00:24:55.450
problems, and the key
psychological aspect is not

00:24:55.450 --> 00:24:57.850
the impatience and
aggressiveness.

00:24:57.850 --> 00:25:01.970
Although if you work for
somebody like that, you don't

00:25:01.970 --> 00:25:03.160
enjoy that, probably.

00:25:03.160 --> 00:25:05.730
But the key thing is whether the
person feels in themselves

00:25:05.730 --> 00:25:09.230
hostility, not impatience but
hostility, and especially when

00:25:09.230 --> 00:25:10.630
they suppress it.

00:25:10.630 --> 00:25:13.750
Like, they go, I'm so mad, I'm
so mad, I'm so mad but I can't

00:25:13.750 --> 00:25:16.670
really hit the person in
front of the line.

00:25:16.670 --> 00:25:19.570
And that person brewing with
hostility and suppressing that

00:25:19.570 --> 00:25:21.650
rage is actually pushing
up their risk of

00:25:21.650 --> 00:25:24.410
cardiovascular disorders.

00:25:24.410 --> 00:25:27.450
So again we talked about to
adaptive stress-responses and

00:25:27.450 --> 00:25:30.960
for practically every one of
them, what can be understood

00:25:30.960 --> 00:25:34.860
to be a stress-related disease
when that form of stress

00:25:34.860 --> 00:25:36.810
continues chronically
and unabated.

00:25:36.810 --> 00:25:40.320
And here's a picture of a neuron
in a healthy animal

00:25:40.320 --> 00:25:43.200
with lots of dendrites and
arborization, and the

00:25:43.200 --> 00:25:46.020
whithered neuron in a
hippocampal animal given lots

00:25:46.020 --> 00:25:48.110
of stress in laboratory
experiments.

00:25:48.110 --> 00:25:49.874
So you can see it at the
neuronal level, you can see it

00:25:49.874 --> 00:25:51.640
at the behavioral level, you
can see it at the disease

00:25:51.640 --> 00:25:58.280
level, chronic stress is
toxic in many ways.

00:25:58.280 --> 00:26:03.200
So one form of stress that
occurs after really terrible

00:26:03.200 --> 00:26:06.390
experiences is post-traumatic
stress disorder.

00:26:06.390 --> 00:26:07.950
And you may have heard--

00:26:07.950 --> 00:26:11.090
where do you hear it these
days most of all, about

00:26:11.090 --> 00:26:13.124
post-traumatic stress
disorder?

00:26:13.124 --> 00:26:13.900
AUDIENCE: The wars.

00:26:13.900 --> 00:26:15.220
PROFESSOR: The wars, right.

00:26:15.220 --> 00:26:18.760
The unabated wars in the Middle
East, for American

00:26:18.760 --> 00:26:21.840
soldiers going over there under
many tours of duty,

00:26:21.840 --> 00:26:24.080
under constant fear
of explosion.

00:26:24.080 --> 00:26:26.860
For the civilian populations
in those parts of the world

00:26:26.860 --> 00:26:30.890
under nonstop war threat
for many, many years.

00:26:30.890 --> 00:26:36.620
So, if you did a brutal, vicious
experiment of people

00:26:36.620 --> 00:26:39.350
under constant threat for their
life, unfortunately you

00:26:39.350 --> 00:26:43.790
couldn't create a more perfect
one than the Middle East, for

00:26:43.790 --> 00:26:46.520
both soldiers and civilians for
the last decade, right?

00:26:46.520 --> 00:26:48.440
Constant threat and
danger for people,

00:26:48.440 --> 00:26:50.960
everywhere, all the time.

00:26:50.960 --> 00:26:53.180
I was reading a story about
one soldier, for example,

00:26:53.180 --> 00:26:56.930
civilians as well, who was
standing in line to get his

00:26:56.930 --> 00:27:00.490
toothpaste, IED blows up
and he loses his leg.

00:27:00.490 --> 00:27:02.450
That's what the life is like
for those soldiers.

00:27:02.450 --> 00:27:05.720
And as you know, because in
the US we have a volunteer

00:27:05.720 --> 00:27:10.070
army, soldiers are sent again
and again for years

00:27:10.070 --> 00:27:11.570
altogether.

00:27:11.570 --> 00:27:14.310
And the civilians living there
all the time, that's the world

00:27:14.310 --> 00:27:18.890
they're in, brutal
stress induction.

00:27:18.890 --> 00:27:22.760
Just a few months ago, the
number of American soldiers

00:27:22.760 --> 00:27:26.910
who died from suicide is now, on
a monthly basis, exceeding

00:27:26.910 --> 00:27:28.810
those who die from
war injuries.

00:27:28.810 --> 00:27:29.940
Think about that.

00:27:29.940 --> 00:27:33.520
The number of active American
soldier who die from suicide

00:27:33.520 --> 00:27:37.190
is equal to or higher in many
months nowadays than the

00:27:37.190 --> 00:27:41.040
number who died from war
consequences of bombs and

00:27:41.040 --> 00:27:42.290
things like that.

00:27:42.290 --> 00:27:45.660
So, there's a lot of interest
in PTSD from the war, from

00:27:45.660 --> 00:27:48.090
civilians having been exposed
to the war, and then from

00:27:48.090 --> 00:27:50.240
individuals who have brutal
episodes in their lives,

00:27:50.240 --> 00:27:52.280
tragically, of assault
or rape.

00:27:52.280 --> 00:27:54.820
It's a severe anxiety disorder
that can develop after

00:27:54.820 --> 00:27:56.430
exposure to any event
which results in

00:27:56.430 --> 00:27:58.130
psychological trauma.

00:27:58.130 --> 00:28:00.290
People re-experience the
original trauma through

00:28:00.290 --> 00:28:04.120
flashbacks, dreams, increased
arousal, hyper-vigilance.

00:28:04.120 --> 00:28:07.520
And it's very common for anybody
who goes through an

00:28:07.520 --> 00:28:11.820
emotionally brutal experience
and it persists strongly in

00:28:11.820 --> 00:28:14.110
what's estimated about 20%
of people who go through

00:28:14.110 --> 00:28:17.160
something like that.

00:28:17.160 --> 00:28:19.940
So people have tried to
understand, what is the brain

00:28:19.940 --> 00:28:24.580
basis of PTSD, who is at risk
for it, and how does it happen

00:28:24.580 --> 00:28:26.510
in the brain in a way that
treatment might become more

00:28:26.510 --> 00:28:28.160
effective to help people.

00:28:28.160 --> 00:28:30.270
So one thing that was observed,
and not everybody

00:28:30.270 --> 00:28:33.640
guessed this finding, is that
individuals with smaller

00:28:33.640 --> 00:28:36.650
volumes of the hippocampus--

00:28:36.650 --> 00:28:38.910
when they look at soldiers with
PTSD they tend to smaller

00:28:38.910 --> 00:28:40.650
hippocampal volumes.

00:28:40.650 --> 00:28:45.830
So, let's ask the question, how
could this be a cause or

00:28:45.830 --> 00:28:49.660
how could this be a consequence
of a severely

00:28:49.660 --> 00:28:52.900
traumatic experience you have,
like serving in a particularly

00:28:52.900 --> 00:28:55.200
brutal and nasty war--

00:28:55.200 --> 00:28:56.110
or being a civilian in one.

00:28:56.110 --> 00:29:00.600
But these are soldier studies,
so we'll focus on that.

00:29:00.600 --> 00:29:01.560
How can you tell?

00:29:01.560 --> 00:29:04.650
They come back from the war,
they have PTSD they have

00:29:04.650 --> 00:29:07.140
smaller hippocampi.

00:29:07.140 --> 00:29:11.340
Was that a risk factor for
becoming somebody with PTSD

00:29:11.340 --> 00:29:15.180
into a high-stress situation, or
was it the way that the war

00:29:15.180 --> 00:29:17.340
situation made you have PTSD?

00:29:17.340 --> 00:29:19.400
Is it the cause, or
the consequence?

00:29:19.400 --> 00:29:20.490
Does that make sense?

00:29:20.490 --> 00:29:24.600
OK, so here's an approach
that people have taken.

00:29:24.600 --> 00:29:25.312
They did a twin study--

00:29:25.312 --> 00:29:27.360
I'll show you the graph
in a moment--

00:29:27.360 --> 00:29:31.130
where one twin, this was for
Vietnam now, went to serve in

00:29:31.130 --> 00:29:35.980
Vietnam, and one twin did not
serve in the military at all.

00:29:35.980 --> 00:29:39.360
And these are identical twins.

00:29:39.360 --> 00:29:43.690
And then they asked is the
hippocampus smaller in the

00:29:43.690 --> 00:29:45.820
twin who never went?

00:29:45.820 --> 00:29:48.640
And the logic was--

00:29:48.640 --> 00:29:50.100
it's not a complete
certainty--

00:29:50.100 --> 00:29:54.530
but the logic is, if the twin
who stays home in the US also

00:29:54.530 --> 00:29:58.360
has a smaller hippocampus, that
suggests that it's a risk

00:29:58.360 --> 00:30:02.860
factor for PTSD, rather
than the way that PTSD

00:30:02.860 --> 00:30:03.985
develops in the brain.

00:30:03.985 --> 00:30:05.230
Does that make sense?

00:30:05.230 --> 00:30:07.180
It might also play a role in
that, but it's present even

00:30:07.180 --> 00:30:08.060
before that.

00:30:08.060 --> 00:30:09.580
And that's exactly
what they found--

00:30:09.580 --> 00:30:12.320
these graphs, I really have to
get the projector fixed-- but

00:30:12.320 --> 00:30:14.910
there's two steep lines here
on your notes you'll see.

00:30:14.910 --> 00:30:16.150
They're both pretty steep.

00:30:16.150 --> 00:30:19.840
The top one is the correlation
between severity of PTSD in

00:30:19.840 --> 00:30:23.130
the soldiers who went and
hippocampal volume.

00:30:23.130 --> 00:30:25.640
And the bottom is hippocampal
volume in the twins who didn't

00:30:25.640 --> 00:30:29.090
go, and they look incredibly
similar.

00:30:29.090 --> 00:30:32.440
That is, the larger hippocampus
of either the twin

00:30:32.440 --> 00:30:36.350
who went to war or the twin who
stayed home, the larger of

00:30:36.350 --> 00:30:38.850
either one correlated
with the PTSD in the

00:30:38.850 --> 00:30:40.185
twin who went to war.

00:30:40.185 --> 00:30:41.080
Does that make sense?

00:30:41.080 --> 00:30:41.750
OK.

00:30:41.750 --> 00:30:44.480
So it's as if the genetic
influence, or the early

00:30:44.480 --> 00:30:47.750
environmental influence
at home, or both--

00:30:47.750 --> 00:30:49.760
if you have a smaller
hippocampus, you're at high

00:30:49.760 --> 00:30:51.390
risk for PTSD.

00:30:51.390 --> 00:30:53.800
Now, if you're not sent
into war, you won't

00:30:53.800 --> 00:30:54.910
necessarily get PTSD.

00:30:54.910 --> 00:30:57.550
But if you're sent into war,
then you're at high risk for

00:30:57.550 --> 00:30:59.310
getting PTSD.

00:30:59.310 --> 00:31:00.880
Is that OK?

00:31:00.880 --> 00:31:03.870
So, more recently people have
begun to do pre/post studies,

00:31:03.870 --> 00:31:09.290
and this is one done in the
Israeli military, 50 recruits

00:31:09.290 --> 00:31:12.880
before and after they did
military service as

00:31:12.880 --> 00:31:14.380
paramedics.

00:31:14.380 --> 00:31:16.020
And what they found was that
there was increased stress

00:31:16.020 --> 00:31:17.740
associated with a greater
amygdala and hippocampal

00:31:17.740 --> 00:31:21.060
response fMRI to stress-related
content.

00:31:21.060 --> 00:31:23.980
But the amygdala reactivity
before stress-related contact

00:31:23.980 --> 00:31:27.660
predicted how many stress
symptoms you have, and the

00:31:27.660 --> 00:31:28.630
hippocampus change over time

00:31:28.630 --> 00:31:29.890
correlated with stress symptoms.

00:31:29.890 --> 00:31:31.630
So now this goes a little bit
differently, it says the

00:31:31.630 --> 00:31:36.250
amygdala function predicts who's
at risk for having PTSD,

00:31:36.250 --> 00:31:39.610
and the hippocampal changes
over time before and after

00:31:39.610 --> 00:31:42.190
your initial service go with
the degree to which you

00:31:42.190 --> 00:31:44.424
exhibit the PTSD.

00:31:44.424 --> 00:31:47.240
I'll just say that.

00:31:47.240 --> 00:31:50.690
So, there's been a lot of work
on understanding what can

00:31:50.690 --> 00:31:55.190
positively modify stress.

00:31:55.190 --> 00:31:59.730
What can you do, given stress
you can't avoid, to do better

00:31:59.730 --> 00:32:00.980
and cope better with that?

00:32:00.980 --> 00:32:02.790
What can be the sources
of resilience?

00:32:02.790 --> 00:32:04.250
And I'm going to give you
examples, but I'm going to

00:32:04.250 --> 00:32:06.360
tell you the following, these
are the categories that have

00:32:06.360 --> 00:32:09.250
come up in pretty
well-controlled studies.

00:32:09.250 --> 00:32:11.500
Outlets for frustration, if
you have a good outlet for

00:32:11.500 --> 00:32:15.670
frustration, that diminishes the
toxic effects of stress.

00:32:15.670 --> 00:32:19.740
If you can predict bad things
and feel you have control,

00:32:19.740 --> 00:32:22.890
even if you have bad things
happen, you can cope with the

00:32:22.890 --> 00:32:23.990
consequences better.

00:32:23.990 --> 00:32:25.860
We talked about that in learned
helplessness before,

00:32:25.860 --> 00:32:27.720
this was our theme before.

00:32:27.720 --> 00:32:30.340
If things seem to be getting
better, even if they're pretty

00:32:30.340 --> 00:32:32.940
bad, if they seem to be getting
better, that's a huge

00:32:32.940 --> 00:32:34.850
source of resilience.

00:32:34.850 --> 00:32:36.690
And social support
is very powerful.

00:32:36.690 --> 00:32:37.770
So let me show you
the empirical

00:32:37.770 --> 00:32:39.540
evidence for these things.

00:32:39.540 --> 00:32:42.740
So, here's a study where
rats received shocks.

00:32:42.740 --> 00:32:44.750
They had a prolonged stress
response, because they were in

00:32:44.750 --> 00:32:47.830
a situation of getting shocks
and shocks and shocks.

00:32:47.830 --> 00:32:49.620
Heart rate goes up,
glucocorticoid cortical

00:32:49.620 --> 00:32:51.820
secretion goes up, high
rate of ulcers.

00:32:54.520 --> 00:32:56.290
Now you have other rats getting
a similar thing, but

00:32:56.290 --> 00:32:58.570
they can gnaw on a wooden
bar, or eat or

00:32:58.570 --> 00:32:59.750
drink, or run on a wheel.

00:32:59.750 --> 00:33:01.350
So, they have outlets
for frustration.

00:33:01.350 --> 00:33:04.650
It doesn't prevent the shocks,
it's just after they get a

00:33:04.650 --> 00:33:07.900
shock they'll go for a quick
angry run on the wheel, OK, or

00:33:07.900 --> 00:33:10.170
they'll bite on something, OK?

00:33:10.170 --> 00:33:12.040
And they have fewer ulcers.

00:33:12.040 --> 00:33:15.020
So, just having an outlet
for frustration

00:33:15.020 --> 00:33:18.120
reduces the toxic effects.

00:33:18.120 --> 00:33:20.070
Even another rat in the
cage that they can go

00:33:20.070 --> 00:33:22.080
and bite helps, OK?

00:33:22.080 --> 00:33:24.830
Now that's not a nice thing for
the other rats, but it's

00:33:24.830 --> 00:33:27.490
just like this common thing
that we have, it's not the

00:33:27.490 --> 00:33:30.550
best human trait, this is an
example of a rat trait as an

00:33:30.550 --> 00:33:33.870
example, but if somebody is as
miserable as you, you feel

00:33:33.870 --> 00:33:36.640
better about things, OK?

00:33:36.640 --> 00:33:39.680
And baboons will attack
bystanders

00:33:39.680 --> 00:33:40.640
after losing a fight.

00:33:40.640 --> 00:33:43.270
So, baboons, depending on
where they are in the

00:33:43.270 --> 00:33:47.600
hierarchy, alpha male and so
on, they lose a fight, they

00:33:47.600 --> 00:33:50.000
get themselves healthier in
terms of glucocorticoids if

00:33:50.000 --> 00:33:51.990
after they lose a fight
they go beat up a

00:33:51.990 --> 00:33:54.270
lower-ranking baboon.

00:33:54.270 --> 00:33:56.180
we're not recommending that as
a nice way to behave, we're

00:33:56.180 --> 00:33:59.630
just saying, weirdly enough,
these kinds of actions some

00:33:59.630 --> 00:34:00.580
outlet for frustration--

00:34:00.580 --> 00:34:03.010
some are more constructive
than others--

00:34:03.010 --> 00:34:05.020
result in resilience
in these animals.

00:34:05.020 --> 00:34:07.030
Fewer ulcers, lowering
of glucocorticoids.

00:34:07.030 --> 00:34:10.909
So, some kind of outlet
for stress.

00:34:10.909 --> 00:34:13.610
How about predictability
and control?

00:34:13.610 --> 00:34:16.690
So if rats hear a warning before
a shock, even though

00:34:16.690 --> 00:34:17.889
they get an equal number
of shocks,

00:34:17.889 --> 00:34:19.380
they have fewer ulcers.

00:34:19.380 --> 00:34:22.670
So, as long as they can know the
shock is coming, they have

00:34:22.670 --> 00:34:26.239
all the dread of that too, but
they feel like I know what's

00:34:26.239 --> 00:34:29.699
going on, and that literally
results in fewer ulcers.

00:34:29.699 --> 00:34:35.190
If food is delivered to a rat at
intermittent intervals they

00:34:35.190 --> 00:34:37.790
can predict versus random
delivery, they're more

00:34:37.790 --> 00:34:39.030
stressed with the
random delivery.

00:34:39.030 --> 00:34:39.940
Again, prediction--

00:34:39.940 --> 00:34:42.030
equal amount of food, but if
they can predict it, they feel

00:34:42.030 --> 00:34:43.940
like they know what's
going on.

00:34:43.940 --> 00:34:47.990
Rats are given a lever to avoid
the shock, even if the

00:34:47.990 --> 00:34:49.670
lever is disconnected
to the shocks, the

00:34:49.670 --> 00:34:51.400
stress response is reduced.

00:34:51.400 --> 00:34:53.480
So, it's kind of an outlet too,
like here's a lever I'm

00:34:53.480 --> 00:34:55.900
pushing, it doesn't do
anything, but they

00:34:55.900 --> 00:34:57.560
feel like, who knows?

00:34:57.560 --> 00:34:59.580
I feel like I have
some control.

00:34:59.580 --> 00:35:01.080
Same thing with people, they
did experiments where they

00:35:01.080 --> 00:35:03.400
give obnoxious noises,
and one person has a

00:35:03.400 --> 00:35:05.400
button to stop the noise.

00:35:05.400 --> 00:35:08.240
They're less hypertensive
whether the button

00:35:08.240 --> 00:35:09.070
is pressed or not.

00:35:09.070 --> 00:35:12.170
So they don't even have to
press, but if they feel like,

00:35:12.170 --> 00:35:14.840
they feel like they might have
control that's already a

00:35:14.840 --> 00:35:17.340
protective measure for stress.

00:35:17.340 --> 00:35:19.550
And there's famous studies
looking at occupational

00:35:19.550 --> 00:35:22.100
stress, because some
jobs have very high

00:35:22.100 --> 00:35:22.910
demand and low control.

00:35:22.910 --> 00:35:26.010
The most famous one that I
know of is from pilots in

00:35:26.010 --> 00:35:28.370
World War II in the
British Air Force.

00:35:28.370 --> 00:35:30.720
And they compared the pilot, who
sat up front and rode the

00:35:30.720 --> 00:35:32.900
plane, versus the gunner--

00:35:32.900 --> 00:35:35.850
and if you think of those
airplanes from books or movies

00:35:35.850 --> 00:35:37.900
there's a little turret down and
there's a gunner shooting

00:35:37.900 --> 00:35:39.520
at the other planes and they're
shooting back at him--

00:35:39.520 --> 00:35:42.450
does he feel like he
has any control?

00:35:42.450 --> 00:35:43.340
No.

00:35:43.340 --> 00:35:45.260
Wherever the pilot's going he's
like, no don't go there,

00:35:45.260 --> 00:35:46.890
don't go there they're all
just shooting at him.

00:35:46.890 --> 00:35:49.090
So, and then they look at the
life expectancy and health of

00:35:49.090 --> 00:35:51.990
the people and the pilots did a
lot better than the gunners

00:35:51.990 --> 00:35:53.170
after the war.

00:35:53.170 --> 00:35:55.710
Because the gunners just went
out day-in, day-out and they

00:35:55.710 --> 00:35:58.220
just went wherever the pilot
took them and the shots were

00:35:58.220 --> 00:35:58.680
coming out.

00:35:58.680 --> 00:36:01.570
So everybody was at risk, but
the pilots felt they had

00:36:01.570 --> 00:36:04.420
control and the gunners felt
they had no control.

00:36:04.420 --> 00:36:05.810
So, many different examples.

00:36:05.810 --> 00:36:07.970
Here's a very famous one, and
I read somewhere they're

00:36:07.970 --> 00:36:10.250
making a movie of this, I don't
know exactly how they'll

00:36:10.250 --> 00:36:12.770
make compelling,
but here we go.

00:36:12.770 --> 00:36:16.670
So this is a study from Judy
Rodin and Ellen Langer where

00:36:16.670 --> 00:36:17.900
they looked at the sense
of predictability

00:36:17.900 --> 00:36:19.310
in a nursing home.

00:36:19.310 --> 00:36:21.300
And they took people at randomly
assigned, from

00:36:21.300 --> 00:36:23.270
randomly selected different
floors.

00:36:23.270 --> 00:36:26.290
And group A, in the nursing
home, got to make many

00:36:26.290 --> 00:36:27.800
decisions for themselves.

00:36:27.800 --> 00:36:30.580
They got to decide where to
receive their visitors, when

00:36:30.580 --> 00:36:33.190
to watch a movie, what house
plant to take care of-- they

00:36:33.190 --> 00:36:34.660
all took care of
a house plant.

00:36:34.660 --> 00:36:38.260
These are sort of minor things
but people in a nursing home

00:36:38.260 --> 00:36:39.510
don't have a huge
range of things

00:36:39.510 --> 00:36:40.710
they can control anyway.

00:36:40.710 --> 00:36:42.660
But they took these things they
could put under their

00:36:42.660 --> 00:36:44.680
control, and group B got no

00:36:44.680 --> 00:36:46.000
instructions to make decisions.

00:36:46.000 --> 00:36:48.490
They got a plant, but the staff
took care of the plants.

00:36:48.490 --> 00:36:50.970
So everybody gets a plant, but
one group, they're saying make

00:36:50.970 --> 00:36:52.420
the decisions you can
for yourself.

00:36:52.420 --> 00:36:54.880
And the other group, the nurses
and doctors made all

00:36:54.880 --> 00:36:58.580
the decisions they could
for those individuals.

00:36:58.580 --> 00:36:59.920
They look at what happened
one and a half

00:36:59.920 --> 00:37:01.510
years later after this.

00:37:01.510 --> 00:37:03.410
Not only the group A, the
people who are making

00:37:03.410 --> 00:37:05.820
decisions for themselves in
the nursing home, report

00:37:05.820 --> 00:37:07.350
themselves to be more cheerful,

00:37:07.350 --> 00:37:09.550
more active, and alert.

00:37:09.550 --> 00:37:11.810
They were also objectively
healthier and, kind of

00:37:11.810 --> 00:37:16.180
amazingly, only half as many
had died, literally died.

00:37:16.180 --> 00:37:18.500
So it's an extremely
compelling--

00:37:18.500 --> 00:37:20.450
I've shown you so many sources
of evidence, from controlled

00:37:20.450 --> 00:37:23.740
animal things to anecdotal
things to kind of a controlled

00:37:23.740 --> 00:37:27.240
experiment with humans with
random assignment here, where

00:37:27.240 --> 00:37:31.450
the sense that a person has
control is incredibly powerful

00:37:31.450 --> 00:37:35.130
not only for their happiness,
but it literally seems to

00:37:35.130 --> 00:37:38.840
fight off stress-related
diseases in their body, in

00:37:38.840 --> 00:37:40.745
their hearts and their
life expectancy.

00:37:43.470 --> 00:37:45.390
Now the psychological modifiers
of the stress

00:37:45.390 --> 00:37:48.220
response are going to vary
depending on who you are and

00:37:48.220 --> 00:37:48.940
the culture you're in.

00:37:48.940 --> 00:37:50.430
I'm going to show you one
experiment about that, we'll

00:37:50.430 --> 00:37:51.890
talk a little bit later about
different cultures.

00:37:51.890 --> 00:37:55.190
But here's one about what counts
as predictably and

00:37:55.190 --> 00:37:58.820
control, it'll vary
by culture.

00:37:58.820 --> 00:38:02.060
So, we'll talk more about this
in social psychology, but

00:38:02.060 --> 00:38:05.620
social psychologists like
to talk about one giant

00:38:05.620 --> 00:38:08.440
distinction around the world
as a simplified way of

00:38:08.440 --> 00:38:11.590
organizing a huge complexity
of cultures--

00:38:11.590 --> 00:38:15.000
individualist cultures and
collectivist cultures.

00:38:15.000 --> 00:38:17.650
Individualist cultures tend to
emphasize the individual--

00:38:17.650 --> 00:38:19.590
be yourself, be all that
you can be, OK?

00:38:19.590 --> 00:38:22.930
You're the one, you're
the special person.

00:38:22.930 --> 00:38:28.400
That's thought to be common
as a cultural mode in

00:38:28.400 --> 00:38:30.140
the US and in Europe.

00:38:30.140 --> 00:38:33.470
Over time, just in the last
decade, people decided the US

00:38:33.470 --> 00:38:36.220
is like way, way out of control,
different than the

00:38:36.220 --> 00:38:37.860
rest of the world in this.

00:38:37.860 --> 00:38:41.110
The US would send this message
to everybody, the way to be

00:38:41.110 --> 00:38:43.965
happy and successful is to
be super individualistic.

00:38:46.550 --> 00:38:48.860
Europe, a little less so.

00:38:48.860 --> 00:38:52.650
And other cultures, Japan South
Korea, China received a

00:38:52.650 --> 00:38:54.290
lot of attention--
and East Asia--

00:38:54.290 --> 00:38:56.050
tend to be more like we're
in this together.

00:38:56.050 --> 00:38:59.650
Now this is super simplifying
over many people, many

00:38:59.650 --> 00:39:00.580
situations.

00:39:00.580 --> 00:39:02.900
But cultures do send messages.

00:39:02.900 --> 00:39:05.710
Where you grow up, everything
from your household to your

00:39:05.710 --> 00:39:07.580
town you're in, the school
you're in, the

00:39:07.580 --> 00:39:08.940
country you're in.

00:39:08.940 --> 00:39:11.480
They send you messages
of ways to be.

00:39:11.480 --> 00:39:13.810
I mean, we live in them.

00:39:13.810 --> 00:39:16.500
And here's an example, an
experiment that shows,

00:39:16.500 --> 00:39:19.200
depending on the cultural
influences, roughly speaking,

00:39:19.200 --> 00:39:22.640
averaging out across people and
families, you can view one

00:39:22.640 --> 00:39:28.110
thing or another as a better,
healthier, happier control.

00:39:28.110 --> 00:39:29.690
So here's the experiment--

00:39:29.690 --> 00:39:31.830
and there's a bunch these,
but this is one.

00:39:31.830 --> 00:39:34.240
In an elementary school, I think
it was in San Francisco,

00:39:34.240 --> 00:39:37.370
7 to 9 year olds who are either
from Asian-American

00:39:37.370 --> 00:39:38.920
families or Anglo-American
families.

00:39:38.920 --> 00:39:40.780
So that's the cultural thing,
trying to look at this

00:39:40.780 --> 00:39:43.070
cultural versus individualist.

00:39:43.070 --> 00:39:45.780
Parenthetically, Asian-American
families in the

00:39:45.780 --> 00:39:49.280
US are probably somewhere
in-between Asian families in

00:39:49.280 --> 00:39:52.440
Asia and Anglo-American families
in the US, right?

00:39:52.440 --> 00:39:55.140
Probably somewhere in between.

00:39:55.140 --> 00:39:57.260
So they did an experiment with
Ms. Smith, the teacher, and

00:39:57.260 --> 00:40:00.930
she has six markers and six
piles of anagrams, and

00:40:00.930 --> 00:40:03.960
somebody got to pick which
anagrams you would work on to

00:40:03.960 --> 00:40:05.350
do your best and solve, OK?

00:40:05.350 --> 00:40:08.520
So, typical school little
exercise, you try to do well.

00:40:08.520 --> 00:40:12.210
And they divided all these
children into three groups.

00:40:12.210 --> 00:40:14.570
In one group the children chose
which anagrams they

00:40:14.570 --> 00:40:16.170
would you do.

00:40:16.170 --> 00:40:18.450
In one group, the teacher
chose it.

00:40:18.450 --> 00:40:21.990
And one, they said we've
communicated with your mother

00:40:21.990 --> 00:40:25.180
and she says this is the
anagram set for you.

00:40:25.180 --> 00:40:26.930
OK, so you could think
in your own life.

00:40:26.930 --> 00:40:30.220
If you arrive to class tomorrow
at MIT and people

00:40:30.220 --> 00:40:32.640
told you, here's
a problem set.

00:40:32.640 --> 00:40:35.520
You pick the problems, I pick
the problems, or I emailed

00:40:35.520 --> 00:40:37.500
your mother and she said you
should really try those

00:40:37.500 --> 00:40:38.620
problems, OK?

00:40:38.620 --> 00:40:39.860
Well you're older
you wouldn't--

00:40:39.860 --> 00:40:42.010
you'd be weirded out, right?

00:40:42.010 --> 00:40:43.620
But 7 to 9 year olds.

00:40:43.620 --> 00:40:45.070
They sort of take that, right?

00:40:45.070 --> 00:40:46.900
Alright, here's the
interesting thing.

00:40:46.900 --> 00:40:49.470
So we're going to talk about
performance on the anagrams.

00:40:49.470 --> 00:40:53.210
So this is actual performance,
what seems like a

00:40:53.210 --> 00:40:54.450
self-controlled thing.

00:40:54.450 --> 00:40:57.490
For the children who are from
Anglo-American families, they

00:40:57.490 --> 00:41:00.990
performed best when they picked
the anagrams set.

00:41:00.990 --> 00:41:02.580
The anagram sets were all
equal difficulty.

00:41:02.580 --> 00:41:04.970
Just like, I picked it I know
what I'm doing, OK?

00:41:04.970 --> 00:41:07.640
Four times better than the
teacher and two and a half

00:41:07.640 --> 00:41:09.190
times better than when
the mother picked.

00:41:09.190 --> 00:41:11.580
That is, there's something about
picking that set that

00:41:11.580 --> 00:41:14.170
makes them feel like that's the
right set for them, and

00:41:14.170 --> 00:41:17.190
they perform best.

00:41:17.190 --> 00:41:19.000
For the children from
Asian-American families, on

00:41:19.000 --> 00:41:22.400
average they perform best when
the mother had selected the

00:41:22.400 --> 00:41:23.640
anagram set.

00:41:23.640 --> 00:41:27.060
30% better than themselves,
and twice

00:41:27.060 --> 00:41:29.010
as well as the teacher.

00:41:29.010 --> 00:41:33.030
So all this is saying is,
culture influences all of us

00:41:33.030 --> 00:41:34.980
in various ways, in
complicated ways.

00:41:34.980 --> 00:41:37.350
This is one of the easiest
things to identify, is this

00:41:37.350 --> 00:41:39.520
kind of a cultural difference.

00:41:39.520 --> 00:41:41.940
But the important thing is, it's
psychological what you

00:41:41.940 --> 00:41:44.600
perceive as a source
of control, right?

00:41:44.600 --> 00:41:47.300
So the way we interpret this
is, for children who are

00:41:47.300 --> 00:41:50.290
exposed heavily to an
Anglo-American emphasis on

00:41:50.290 --> 00:41:53.020
independent selfness.

00:41:53.020 --> 00:41:57.960
You're the one, you believe you
do best the most control

00:41:57.960 --> 00:42:00.240
is exerted, when you choose.

00:42:00.240 --> 00:42:04.340
And, apparently, for these
Asian-American children, they

00:42:04.340 --> 00:42:07.720
feel the best control has been
exerted when their mother had

00:42:07.720 --> 00:42:10.170
selected for them the
anagram they're most

00:42:10.170 --> 00:42:11.820
likely to succeed on.

00:42:11.820 --> 00:42:13.910
And the performance goes
with that belief for

00:42:13.910 --> 00:42:16.600
both groups of children.

00:42:16.600 --> 00:42:18.170
I always worry about these
things, and we're going to

00:42:18.170 --> 00:42:20.840
talk a little more about
stereotypes, because you

00:42:20.840 --> 00:42:22.890
sometimes feel like you're
supporting stereotypes, but

00:42:22.890 --> 00:42:24.100
these are real studies and
they didn't have to

00:42:24.100 --> 00:42:25.450
play out that way.

00:42:25.450 --> 00:42:29.580
And it's obviously this
doesn't say every

00:42:29.580 --> 00:42:31.030
Anglo-American is this
way, and every

00:42:31.030 --> 00:42:32.420
Asian-American is that way.

00:42:32.420 --> 00:42:35.700
But cultures do influence us,
otherwise the other choice is

00:42:35.700 --> 00:42:37.170
cultures don't influence us.

00:42:37.170 --> 00:42:39.630
And all the data says that
culture matters.

00:42:39.630 --> 00:42:42.050
The world we grow up in, the
values we're exposed to.

00:42:42.050 --> 00:42:46.990
OK here's another kind of brutal
experiment about sense

00:42:46.990 --> 00:42:50.560
of control from 1957.

00:42:50.560 --> 00:42:52.330
This is truly life and death.

00:42:52.330 --> 00:42:57.650
So, they were interested in
understanding really about

00:42:57.650 --> 00:43:01.630
survival for animals for water
temperature and endurance.

00:43:01.630 --> 00:43:04.140
And they put the rats in a jar,
and they asked, brutally,

00:43:04.140 --> 00:43:07.330
how long does a rat swim
before drowns?

00:43:07.330 --> 00:43:10.410
OK, this is a brutal experiment,
as you can--

00:43:10.410 --> 00:43:12.410
And the goal there was more
to understand things about

00:43:12.410 --> 00:43:14.200
temperature, and whether people
could survive different

00:43:14.200 --> 00:43:14.580
temperatures.

00:43:14.580 --> 00:43:16.270
It wasn't just to be
mean to rats, OK?

00:43:16.270 --> 00:43:20.250
The science goal was to
understand thermal survival

00:43:20.250 --> 00:43:22.480
for people, in the long run.

00:43:22.480 --> 00:43:24.110
But one thing they noticed
was this--

00:43:24.110 --> 00:43:27.510
some rats gave up in about 15
minutes, others would struggle

00:43:27.510 --> 00:43:31.170
as long as possible, and
would go for an hour

00:43:31.170 --> 00:43:33.280
before they gave up.

00:43:33.280 --> 00:43:37.410
Some would surrender quickly,
and some would fight as long

00:43:37.410 --> 00:43:40.040
as a rat can possibly
flight, OK?

00:43:40.040 --> 00:43:41.200
Now what's the difference
between those

00:43:41.200 --> 00:43:44.020
rats who give up early--

00:43:44.020 --> 00:43:45.403
Yeah?

00:43:45.403 --> 00:43:48.790
AUDIENCE: Did they give up after
60 minutes or 60 hours?

00:43:48.790 --> 00:43:51.110
PROFESSOR: 60 hours, I'm
sorry, it is 60 hours.

00:43:51.110 --> 00:43:51.740
OK?

00:43:51.740 --> 00:43:53.190
Yeah it is fantastic,
I'm sorry.

00:43:53.190 --> 00:43:55.200
Yes, you're right, I mis-said
that because--

00:43:55.200 --> 00:43:56.390
yes that's correct.

00:43:56.390 --> 00:44:01.490
But it's huge, OK,
and yes 60 hours.

00:44:01.490 --> 00:44:02.830
There we go, it is hours.

00:44:02.830 --> 00:44:03.590
OK, thank you.

00:44:03.590 --> 00:44:04.200
Is that unbelievable?

00:44:04.200 --> 00:44:05.000
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]

00:44:05.000 --> 00:44:07.590
PROFESSOR: But for life and
death you might do that.

00:44:07.590 --> 00:44:08.510
For life and death?

00:44:08.510 --> 00:44:10.010
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]

00:44:10.010 --> 00:44:13.540
PROFESSOR: But you can't
do anything else.

00:44:13.540 --> 00:44:14.880
I know, it's kind of amazing.

00:44:14.880 --> 00:44:17.090
What's amazing to them is not
necessarily the 60 hours,

00:44:17.090 --> 00:44:19.830
which is pretty impressive
itself, it's that some just

00:44:19.830 --> 00:44:23.410
gave up really fast and some
just went as long as you could

00:44:23.410 --> 00:44:26.300
go before you would expire,
no matter what.

00:44:26.300 --> 00:44:28.750
And I think what it is, they did
an experiment-- this is a

00:44:28.750 --> 00:44:31.500
little bit like the Seyle
experiment, but on purpose.

00:44:31.500 --> 00:44:35.160
But before they put the rats
into here, they picked up the

00:44:35.160 --> 00:44:36.940
rats they let them wiggle
around, and they would put

00:44:36.940 --> 00:44:39.800
them in and out of the water,
and then they would put them

00:44:39.800 --> 00:44:41.740
in this fatal final
experiment.

00:44:41.740 --> 00:44:44.630
And then practically all
of the rest went for

00:44:44.630 --> 00:44:46.970
the 60 hours of effort.

00:44:46.970 --> 00:44:48.100
Why?

00:44:48.100 --> 00:44:50.100
You can't really know, you
can't ask the rat, right?

00:44:50.100 --> 00:44:52.600
But the interpretation is they
went in and out, they went in

00:44:52.600 --> 00:44:53.590
and out, they struggle--

00:44:53.590 --> 00:44:55.200
they had hope.

00:44:55.200 --> 00:44:57.440
Literally, as far as we can
understand, they had hope.

00:44:57.440 --> 00:44:59.410
Because before they were
taken out, OK?

00:44:59.410 --> 00:45:01.420
And if you have hope,
you struggle for

00:45:01.420 --> 00:45:03.070
a long, long time.

00:45:03.070 --> 00:45:05.390
And if you're hopeless for some
reason if you don't have

00:45:05.390 --> 00:45:08.940
hope, you give up fast.

00:45:08.940 --> 00:45:12.310
So it's very compelling that
this sense of self control,

00:45:12.310 --> 00:45:15.060
including hope, makes a
tremendous difference in

00:45:15.060 --> 00:45:16.140
performance.

00:45:16.140 --> 00:45:19.205
And it's very psychologically
malleable in people, what

00:45:19.205 --> 00:45:23.500
counts, for them, as sources
of hope and control.

00:45:23.500 --> 00:45:25.510
How about social support?

00:45:25.510 --> 00:45:28.700
So in primates, after a stress
response, among strangers,

00:45:28.700 --> 00:45:29.900
they're worse.

00:45:29.900 --> 00:45:32.300
If they're among animals they
know, they're better.

00:45:32.300 --> 00:45:34.540
And this is measured by
glucocorticoids, an objective

00:45:34.540 --> 00:45:36.020
measure in monkeys.

00:45:36.020 --> 00:45:38.290
That they're better if they're
among monkeys they know.

00:45:38.290 --> 00:45:41.630
So, you could think in your
own life, family, friends.

00:45:41.630 --> 00:45:46.300
Intuitively are they
sources of support?

00:45:46.300 --> 00:45:47.550
Yes.

00:45:49.480 --> 00:45:52.570
So, they do stressor experiments
with people.

00:45:52.570 --> 00:45:54.260
A really good one is to tell
somebody they're about to do

00:45:54.260 --> 00:45:57.060
public speaking task, that turns
out to scare people, or

00:45:57.060 --> 00:45:58.910
a difficult math task, or
they're about to argue with a

00:45:58.910 --> 00:46:01.200
stranger about a controversial
topic.

00:46:01.200 --> 00:46:03.220
They have less cardiovascular
response if they're with a

00:46:03.220 --> 00:46:06.610
supportive friend present when
they get the instruction, OK?

00:46:06.610 --> 00:46:08.880
So if you're told you're going
to do something, like have a

00:46:08.880 --> 00:46:10.890
really unpleasant argument with
somebody, but there's

00:46:10.890 --> 00:46:13.050
somebody you know with you, who
you know, you have less of

00:46:13.050 --> 00:46:15.795
a physiological response for the
dread, if you want, or the

00:46:15.795 --> 00:46:17.700
stress of the upcoming event.

00:46:17.700 --> 00:46:18.930
And then, so those
are controlled

00:46:18.930 --> 00:46:19.780
experiment with people.

00:46:19.780 --> 00:46:23.120
And there's epidemiological
observation that people with

00:46:23.120 --> 00:46:26.210
spouses and close friends live
longer, that when spouses die,

00:46:26.210 --> 00:46:29.850
the risk of dying increases for
the surviving spouse, that

00:46:29.850 --> 00:46:33.390
parents of children killed in
war have a higher risk of

00:46:33.390 --> 00:46:36.810
disease and mortality but only
if they're divorced and

00:46:36.810 --> 00:46:39.740
widowed, that patients with
severe coronary disease had

00:46:39.740 --> 00:46:41.520
three times the death rate over
five years if they lack

00:46:41.520 --> 00:46:42.220
social support.

00:46:42.220 --> 00:46:44.810
So these are all correlation
studies, all of them would

00:46:44.810 --> 00:46:47.250
have alternative
interpretations, but they are

00:46:47.250 --> 00:46:49.780
all consistent with these
experimental studies that

00:46:49.780 --> 00:46:54.230
social support is an incredibly
powerful buffer for

00:46:54.230 --> 00:46:59.450
resilience for stress
and threat.

00:46:59.450 --> 00:47:03.410
Here's another one, perception
of life improving.

00:47:03.410 --> 00:47:05.540
So, rats getting shocks.

00:47:05.540 --> 00:47:11.520
Rat number one got 10 hours
a day, rat number

00:47:11.520 --> 00:47:13.320
two got 50 per hour.

00:47:13.320 --> 00:47:16.650
And day two, all rats
get 25 per hour.

00:47:16.650 --> 00:47:19.500
So rat number one, life
is getting worse.

00:47:19.500 --> 00:47:22.690
Rat number two, life
is getting better.

00:47:22.690 --> 00:47:27.030
And it's the group that goes
from 10 to 25 that gets

00:47:27.030 --> 00:47:28.330
hypertensive, OK?

00:47:28.330 --> 00:47:30.840
So if you think things are
getting better things can

00:47:30.840 --> 00:47:32.030
still be pretty bad.

00:47:32.030 --> 00:47:35.400
But if they feel like they're
better, then you're going to

00:47:35.400 --> 00:47:37.110
be happier.

00:47:37.110 --> 00:47:38.240
As a side note--

00:47:38.240 --> 00:47:40.490
I should have put this in as a
note but-- there's a work from

00:47:40.490 --> 00:47:42.060
Danny Kahneman on perception
of pain.

00:47:42.060 --> 00:47:46.250
So he talked about people who
went in to dentists, which can

00:47:46.250 --> 00:47:49.650
be sometimes unpleasant, and
had them rate the pain

00:47:49.650 --> 00:47:50.250
periodically.

00:47:50.250 --> 00:47:52.130
And what he found is that, when
you look back in your

00:47:52.130 --> 00:47:54.990
memory of how bad your
experience was, he could

00:47:54.990 --> 00:47:57.170
predict it largely
by two numbers--

00:47:57.170 --> 00:48:02.400
the peak pain response you
report and the change near the

00:48:02.400 --> 00:48:04.330
end if it's getting better.

00:48:04.330 --> 00:48:07.100
So what he discovers, weirdly
enough, is this--

00:48:07.100 --> 00:48:11.320
if you have peak pain responses
that are similar

00:48:11.320 --> 00:48:15.900
with the dentist, if you add
more pain but it's getting

00:48:15.900 --> 00:48:19.120
lower, people will feel like
they had less pain overall,

00:48:19.120 --> 00:48:20.380
even though you added pain.

00:48:20.380 --> 00:48:22.530
Because if you just stop,
it just stops.

00:48:22.530 --> 00:48:24.560
But now you've got a little bit
of pain, and it's getting

00:48:24.560 --> 00:48:26.000
better and better and better.

00:48:26.000 --> 00:48:28.750
So you're adding pain, but the
perception is, at the end it

00:48:28.750 --> 00:48:29.670
was getting better.

00:48:29.670 --> 00:48:30.690
Does that make sense?

00:48:30.690 --> 00:48:32.570
OK, you're adding pain,
but it's getting less

00:48:32.570 --> 00:48:33.190
and less and less.

00:48:33.190 --> 00:48:35.020
But it's still an add, because
you're adding it.

00:48:35.020 --> 00:48:37.200
People, in their mind,
they'll say it was

00:48:37.200 --> 00:48:39.480
less painful overall.

00:48:39.480 --> 00:48:41.820
Because, what counts for
them at the end is the

00:48:41.820 --> 00:48:43.450
getting-betterness.

00:48:43.450 --> 00:48:47.650
Getting better, even if it's
bad, is a hugely powerful way

00:48:47.650 --> 00:48:49.030
the people view things
in terms of how

00:48:49.030 --> 00:48:51.050
miserable life can be.

00:48:51.050 --> 00:48:53.630
So here's a graph that
summarizes, here's risk of

00:48:53.630 --> 00:48:54.480
ulcer in rats.

00:48:54.480 --> 00:48:57.300
If there's another rat present,
if they get a warning

00:48:57.300 --> 00:48:59.680
signal for control, a lever for
responsive, if things seem

00:48:59.680 --> 00:49:01.600
to be getting better, if
they have friends.

00:49:01.600 --> 00:49:05.400
All these things change the
physiological consequence of

00:49:05.400 --> 00:49:07.960
very rough structures
in the laboratory.

00:49:07.960 --> 00:49:10.980
And, as far as we could measure,
it seems to happen in

00:49:10.980 --> 00:49:12.350
people as well.

00:49:12.350 --> 00:49:14.100
So it's kind of a dual
story, right?

00:49:14.100 --> 00:49:16.510
There's fantastic stressors that
we have in daily life in

00:49:16.510 --> 00:49:18.560
the world we live in that are
chronic and unabating in many

00:49:18.560 --> 00:49:22.180
ways, but quite well-identified
things they

00:49:22.180 --> 00:49:25.260
can help us manage those
much, much better.

00:49:25.260 --> 00:49:27.630
Or become victims of them,
much, much more likely.

00:49:31.040 --> 00:49:36.260
OK, I'm going to talk a bit
about a couple studies about

00:49:36.260 --> 00:49:38.760
pain and romance.

00:49:38.760 --> 00:49:41.320
So, and this goes back to an
idea we talked about before,

00:49:41.320 --> 00:49:41.990
but let me just remind you.

00:49:41.990 --> 00:49:43.235
This idea of embodied
cognition.

00:49:43.235 --> 00:49:46.390
That the nature of the human
mind largely determined by the

00:49:46.390 --> 00:49:47.460
form of the human body.

00:49:47.460 --> 00:49:50.820
That bottom-up physiology has
a bigger role in our mental

00:49:50.820 --> 00:49:52.620
life than we might think.

00:49:52.620 --> 00:49:55.760
And I'm going to talk about
emotional pain.

00:49:55.760 --> 00:49:58.080
And two things that are very
painful emotionally--

00:49:58.080 --> 00:50:00.050
and if you've gone through
, you know this-- they're

00:50:00.050 --> 00:50:02.090
shockingly painful sometimes.

00:50:02.090 --> 00:50:05.380
If you haven't had it recently,
they're social

00:50:05.380 --> 00:50:11.350
rejection or romantic
rejection, right?

00:50:11.350 --> 00:50:14.820
It's a sad thing, but it's true
that I think those are

00:50:14.820 --> 00:50:17.560
shockingly painful for many
people, even if you didn't

00:50:17.560 --> 00:50:18.910
think it was going
to be that bad.

00:50:18.910 --> 00:50:22.780
The shock of being rejected
socially or romantically is a

00:50:22.780 --> 00:50:24.990
pretty brutal experience
emotionally.

00:50:24.990 --> 00:50:28.230
I'm going to show you guys from
pretty strong evidence

00:50:28.230 --> 00:50:31.310
that it's because, when you
have that kind of pain it

00:50:31.310 --> 00:50:36.850
literally turns on the same pain
system as heat or shocks.

00:50:36.850 --> 00:50:37.200
OK?

00:50:37.200 --> 00:50:39.220
Literally the same one gets
turned on as far as we can

00:50:39.220 --> 00:50:39.620
measure it.

00:50:39.620 --> 00:50:43.400
So, here's a thing just remind
you that pain has is comprised

00:50:43.400 --> 00:50:44.810
of having two part.

00:50:44.810 --> 00:50:46.910
A sensory one that's the
objective response to the

00:50:46.910 --> 00:50:51.060
pain, and what people call
affective, that is, how much

00:50:51.060 --> 00:50:52.650
you suffer from that pain.

00:50:52.650 --> 00:50:54.120
So we could measure the
objective one and the

00:50:54.120 --> 00:50:55.230
subjective one.

00:50:55.230 --> 00:50:58.590
And a bunch of studies have
suggested that, for example

00:50:58.590 --> 00:51:00.850
somatosensory cortex, this the
cortex that represents your

00:51:00.850 --> 00:51:05.270
body, if you get physical pain
like a shock or heat gun,

00:51:05.270 --> 00:51:07.760
responds to the amount
of that.

00:51:07.760 --> 00:51:10.190
Whereas something like the
anterior sineal, this part of

00:51:10.190 --> 00:51:12.530
the brain viewed from the top,
or this part viewed from the

00:51:12.530 --> 00:51:14.510
side, interprets that pain.

00:51:14.510 --> 00:51:17.490
So we know that people can
withstand pain sometimes, we

00:51:17.490 --> 00:51:19.300
think this doesn't
care about that.

00:51:19.300 --> 00:51:21.530
This is a part of your mind, or
a component of your mind,

00:51:21.530 --> 00:51:23.750
supported by this part of the
brain, that tells you how much

00:51:23.750 --> 00:51:27.430
you suffer subjectively from
an objective thing.

00:51:27.430 --> 00:51:29.240
And part of reason they
think that is the

00:51:29.240 --> 00:51:31.400
study, a hypnosis study.

00:51:31.400 --> 00:51:33.030
So we talked before, is
hypnosis real or not?

00:51:33.030 --> 00:51:34.060
This is one of the things
that should convince

00:51:34.060 --> 00:51:34.530
you a little bit.

00:51:34.530 --> 00:51:37.510
I was as skeptical as anybody
but this is me apart

00:51:37.510 --> 00:51:40.060
So these are individuals who
are highly hypnotic, only

00:51:40.060 --> 00:51:42.960
those are in this kind of
a study, who get pain.

00:51:42.960 --> 00:51:44.960
And they're told to
imagine that the

00:51:44.960 --> 00:51:49.110
pain is always identical.

00:51:49.110 --> 00:51:52.340
it's always identical, but
they're hypnotically suggested

00:51:52.340 --> 00:51:53.890
that it's high or low.

00:51:53.890 --> 00:51:57.060
So in this primary response to
pain in the somatosensory

00:51:57.060 --> 00:51:58.800
cortex, not much difference.

00:51:58.800 --> 00:52:02.170
But in the interior cingulate in
the interpretation of pain,

00:52:02.170 --> 00:52:03.440
a big difference.

00:52:03.440 --> 00:52:06.420
Here's how much it is when they
think it's a low pain by

00:52:06.420 --> 00:52:08.470
hypnotic suggestion, here's the
response when they think

00:52:08.470 --> 00:52:09.380
it's high pain.

00:52:09.380 --> 00:52:11.710
So this change in brain
response is

00:52:11.710 --> 00:52:13.470
purely hypnotic effect.

00:52:13.470 --> 00:52:16.340
The painful stimulus
is always constant.

00:52:16.340 --> 00:52:16.740
Right?

00:52:16.740 --> 00:52:19.370
But that supports of you that
this part is brain response is

00:52:19.370 --> 00:52:22.820
an interpretation rather than a
simple objective response to

00:52:22.820 --> 00:52:24.000
the pain itself.

00:52:24.000 --> 00:52:27.180
There's many sources of
evidence for that.

00:52:27.180 --> 00:52:31.450
So here's a study from Matt
Lieberman at UCLA, where you

00:52:31.450 --> 00:52:34.330
come into a scanner and you're
playing a game with somebody.

00:52:34.330 --> 00:52:36.380
Sometimes they tell you
there's a person

00:52:36.380 --> 00:52:37.530
playing with you.

00:52:37.530 --> 00:52:40.410
It's very simple and it just
shows you that even as adults

00:52:40.410 --> 00:52:42.810
we retain some of our childhood
feelings, which is a

00:52:42.810 --> 00:52:47.000
game very simple computerized
catch.

00:52:47.000 --> 00:52:49.120
And sometimes a person who's
supposedly playing with you

00:52:49.120 --> 00:52:51.950
outside the room throws
the ball back to you.

00:52:51.950 --> 00:52:56.020
And sometimes the person is
really mean and they exclude

00:52:56.020 --> 00:52:59.490
you from playing catch
on the computer.

00:52:59.490 --> 00:53:02.640
So, this is about as silly a
version as you can get for

00:53:02.640 --> 00:53:06.080
young adults participants for
pain, but hey we don't like

00:53:06.080 --> 00:53:08.750
being left out even when it's
some weird experiment.

00:53:08.750 --> 00:53:11.010
And set up a little bit so you
really believe the other

00:53:11.010 --> 00:53:13.730
people in the experiment have
left you out of the ball

00:53:13.730 --> 00:53:14.730
tossing game.

00:53:14.730 --> 00:53:18.580
And here's what turns on, right
in the middle of this

00:53:18.580 --> 00:53:22.260
pain region, the interior
cingulate for this pain of

00:53:22.260 --> 00:53:26.230
social rejection under such
a mild circumstance, OK?

00:53:26.230 --> 00:53:28.950
And, by the way, they do the
same experiment and they tell

00:53:28.950 --> 00:53:31.080
you it's a computer who's
deciding whether to toss you

00:53:31.080 --> 00:53:32.960
the ball, you don't
have a problem.

00:53:32.960 --> 00:53:35.330
It's only when you believe it's
a person who's choosing

00:53:35.330 --> 00:53:36.740
to exclude you.

00:53:36.740 --> 00:53:37.490
OK?

00:53:37.490 --> 00:53:39.940
So this was published in Science
because they said,

00:53:39.940 --> 00:53:44.450
look being left out of a group
is as painful as if we had

00:53:44.450 --> 00:53:46.910
given you a shock
or thermal gun.

00:53:46.910 --> 00:53:50.190
And it could sound ridiculous,
but look it's the same system

00:53:50.190 --> 00:53:50.930
that's responding.

00:53:50.930 --> 00:53:53.770
OK so just recently a paper was
published where they said,

00:53:53.770 --> 00:53:55.770
let's go all the way, this is
just a little laboratory

00:53:55.770 --> 00:53:56.660
experiment.

00:53:56.660 --> 00:54:00.910
Let's grab people who recently
self report a very unhappy

00:54:00.910 --> 00:54:06.260
romantic breakup, OK, where
somebody left them.

00:54:06.260 --> 00:54:09.430
So they gave them both physical
pain and they looked

00:54:09.430 --> 00:54:10.720
at its relation to
romantic pain.

00:54:10.720 --> 00:54:14.290
So participants felt intensely
rejected as a result of

00:54:14.290 --> 00:54:16.630
recently experiencing
an unwanted romantic

00:54:16.630 --> 00:54:17.800
relationship breakup.

00:54:17.800 --> 00:54:20.580
What's the word we use for
that when somebody--

00:54:20.580 --> 00:54:21.700
isn't there a word?

00:54:21.700 --> 00:54:23.400
Help me out here.

00:54:23.400 --> 00:54:24.600
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE]

00:54:24.600 --> 00:54:24.860
PROFESSOR: Dumped.

00:54:24.860 --> 00:54:26.530
Yeah, this is when somebody
dumps you.

00:54:26.530 --> 00:54:27.390
Oh my god, I'm really hurt.

00:54:27.390 --> 00:54:29.910
And what's wrong with me?

00:54:29.910 --> 00:54:31.720
It's easy to laugh about
years later.

00:54:31.720 --> 00:54:33.950
I could tell, I have a story
or two, but I won't

00:54:33.950 --> 00:54:36.100
drag you into my--

00:54:36.100 --> 00:54:40.390
but almost everybody lives
through a version of this some

00:54:40.390 --> 00:54:41.100
time in their lives.

00:54:41.100 --> 00:54:43.640
So it's surprisingly intense.

00:54:43.640 --> 00:54:45.880
So what they did, this is
a tough experiment.

00:54:45.880 --> 00:54:47.850
They had them view pictures
of ex-partners, the

00:54:47.850 --> 00:54:49.110
person who left them.

00:54:49.110 --> 00:54:49.400
OK?

00:54:49.400 --> 00:54:51.390
I don't even know how they're
going to-- please bring us all

00:54:51.390 --> 00:54:52.750
the pictures that are
now covered with

00:54:52.750 --> 00:54:55.290
tears and stuff, right?

00:54:55.290 --> 00:54:57.230
And you view those pictures,
they also had you bring in

00:54:57.230 --> 00:54:59.270
pictures of other friends,
people you knew.

00:54:59.270 --> 00:55:02.390
And you and either thought about
the ex-partners and how

00:55:02.390 --> 00:55:04.170
you were rejected, or you
viewed pictures of your

00:55:04.170 --> 00:55:05.190
friends and you thought
about good

00:55:05.190 --> 00:55:06.020
things about your friends.

00:55:06.020 --> 00:55:08.380
So they controlled for
looking at a face.

00:55:08.380 --> 00:55:11.060
And here's where they find.

00:55:11.060 --> 00:55:12.760
Here's physical pain
and social pain in

00:55:12.760 --> 00:55:14.100
the anterior cingulate.

00:55:14.100 --> 00:55:16.160
Pretty much turning on the
same part of the brain.

00:55:16.160 --> 00:55:20.320
When you see the person who
dumped you and when you get a

00:55:20.320 --> 00:55:22.720
heat gun applied to you that
exerts physical pain.

00:55:22.720 --> 00:55:25.390
And in brain region after
brain region that which

00:55:25.390 --> 00:55:29.490
responds to physical pain is
also turned on with the pain

00:55:29.490 --> 00:55:32.900
of looking at somebody who
dumped you recently and you

00:55:32.900 --> 00:55:36.580
still feel that feeling
of rejection.

00:55:36.580 --> 00:55:40.890
So now all of this is social
rejection is very painful.

00:55:40.890 --> 00:55:44.260
Romantic rejection is very
painful, painful literally.

00:55:44.260 --> 00:55:44.840
OK?

00:55:44.840 --> 00:55:46.450
It's not a metaphor,
it's not a story.

00:55:46.450 --> 00:55:48.750
It's literally the same system
in your brain that feels

00:55:48.750 --> 00:55:50.950
physical pain, feels
this emotion pain.

00:55:50.950 --> 00:55:52.200
Emotional pain is
very powerful.

00:55:55.580 --> 00:55:57.210
And here's an amazing
follow up with this.

00:55:57.210 --> 00:55:59.506
And this is the kind of study--
it'd be interesting to

00:55:59.506 --> 00:56:00.210
see this replicated--

00:56:00.210 --> 00:56:01.940
but it kind of makes sense.

00:56:01.940 --> 00:56:08.540
So they randomly assign people
to 2000 milligrams a pain

00:56:08.540 --> 00:56:10.820
medication like Tylenol,
Excedrin for three weeks or

00:56:10.820 --> 00:56:11.510
they got placebos.

00:56:11.510 --> 00:56:14.050
So you don't know what you've
got, a double blind study.

00:56:14.050 --> 00:56:16.030
They provide daily reports
of how their day was.

00:56:16.030 --> 00:56:19.660
By day 15, they reported less
painful responses to rejection

00:56:19.660 --> 00:56:20.990
in their daily lives.

00:56:20.990 --> 00:56:24.040
And they also had less brain
response to social rejection,

00:56:24.040 --> 00:56:27.380
by taking drugs that
work on pain.

00:56:27.380 --> 00:56:29.850
And they don't even know it's
a double blind comparison.

00:56:29.850 --> 00:56:31.200
Now there's all kinds
of issues--

00:56:31.200 --> 00:56:32.700
for those of you, I've just
got to tell you this-- to

00:56:32.700 --> 00:56:35.010
chronically take these
drugs, you get ulcers

00:56:35.010 --> 00:56:36.470
and things like this.

00:56:36.470 --> 00:56:38.760
so don't do that.

00:56:38.760 --> 00:56:42.450
But it just pushes the point
that there's some incredibly

00:56:42.450 --> 00:56:45.480
interesting relationship between
emotional pain and

00:56:45.480 --> 00:56:50.640
physical pain that's
very striking.

00:56:50.640 --> 00:56:53.520
OK now I'm going to go on for
the last few minutes to

00:56:53.520 --> 00:56:54.220
another topic.

00:56:54.220 --> 00:56:56.600
And again it's one of these
topics about racial relations

00:56:56.600 --> 00:56:59.370
in the US that's always
a very difficult

00:56:59.370 --> 00:57:00.170
topic in our culture.

00:57:00.170 --> 00:57:05.210
And I hope I communicate it
correctly, and appropriately.

00:57:05.210 --> 00:57:08.670
So we talked before about
stereotyped threat, and this

00:57:08.670 --> 00:57:10.940
is a threat that a
person feels--

00:57:10.940 --> 00:57:13.310
this is another form
of stress--

00:57:13.310 --> 00:57:16.130
that others' judgments or one's
own actions will confirm

00:57:16.130 --> 00:57:18.500
a negative stereotype
about one's group.

00:57:18.500 --> 00:57:22.290
And that, for example, in
multiple studies that

00:57:22.290 --> 00:57:26.890
African-Americans when a test
framed about a kind of a test

00:57:26.890 --> 00:57:29.220
of people might think
African-Americans won't do

00:57:29.220 --> 00:57:32.180
well, do less well, when they
just take the test they do

00:57:32.180 --> 00:57:33.420
perfectly well.

00:57:33.420 --> 00:57:35.695
And then we talked about that
whatever stereotype might

00:57:35.695 --> 00:57:39.170
apply to you, when it's invoked
people under-perform

00:57:39.170 --> 00:57:40.210
in that area.

00:57:40.210 --> 00:57:44.400
And we interpret that as a sort
of a stress that's not

00:57:44.400 --> 00:57:47.120
letting people perform
at their best.

00:57:47.120 --> 00:57:51.750
So I'm going to talk about that
stress element, but we're

00:57:51.750 --> 00:57:53.040
going to do an exercise.

00:57:53.040 --> 00:57:55.040
And I need you to be sensitive
on this, and

00:57:55.040 --> 00:57:55.930
hopefully I'll do it.

00:57:55.930 --> 00:58:00.360
This is the most common way
that psychologists measure

00:58:00.360 --> 00:58:04.070
attitude something about the
stereotypes that inhabit the

00:58:04.070 --> 00:58:05.590
minds of people who live
in this country.

00:58:05.590 --> 00:58:07.490
So we're going to do it as an
exercise if you're willing to

00:58:07.490 --> 00:58:10.550
do, you just tap with one
hand or the other.

00:58:10.550 --> 00:58:12.070
And we'll just try it
you don't have to do

00:58:12.070 --> 00:58:14.700
this at your desk.

00:58:14.700 --> 00:58:17.150
I read about this kind of
research for a number of years

00:58:17.150 --> 00:58:19.440
before I ever did it as a
demonstration when I was at a

00:58:19.440 --> 00:58:19.910
conference.

00:58:19.910 --> 00:58:21.940
And somebody works in this field
did it and i it was kind

00:58:21.940 --> 00:58:23.020
of striking when it happened.

00:58:23.020 --> 00:58:25.390
So it's up to you anyway.

00:58:25.390 --> 00:58:27.270
So think about whether you want
to do this, but here's

00:58:27.270 --> 00:58:28.960
what we're going to do.

00:58:28.960 --> 00:58:32.970
So the experiment has two kinds
of stimuli, basically.

00:58:32.970 --> 00:58:35.250
One of them are adjectives
that are pleasant or

00:58:35.250 --> 00:58:35.630
unpleasant.

00:58:35.630 --> 00:58:38.840
everybody agrees that murderer
or sicknesses is unpleasant,

00:58:38.840 --> 00:58:43.470
everybody agrees cheer and
peace are pleasant.

00:58:43.470 --> 00:58:49.480
The second category or stimuli
that are relevant are names

00:58:49.480 --> 00:58:52.260
that are selected in these
experiments to be usually

00:58:52.260 --> 00:58:55.070
thought of-- and of course
it's a generalization--

00:58:55.070 --> 00:59:00.610
to be found for people who are
European-Americans and more

00:59:00.610 --> 00:59:03.280
likely to be associated with
African-Americans.

00:59:03.280 --> 00:59:04.630
OK?

00:59:04.630 --> 00:59:07.500
All right, I mean you'll see,
the experiment has to work

00:59:07.500 --> 00:59:09.210
this way but I'll talk with you
about other versions of it

00:59:09.210 --> 00:59:10.610
that don't depend
on exactly this.

00:59:10.610 --> 00:59:11.160
OK?

00:59:11.160 --> 00:59:12.510
it doesn't really matter.

00:59:12.510 --> 00:59:16.010
you can think about things and
ask questions in a minute.

00:59:16.010 --> 00:59:20.980
So what I'm going to ask you
to do, This you're going to

00:59:20.980 --> 00:59:24.730
see a list like this
of adjectives.

00:59:24.730 --> 00:59:34.460
Go from top to bottom if it's
an unpleasant word you tap

00:59:34.460 --> 00:59:36.400
with your left on your desk, it
it's a pleasant word with

00:59:36.400 --> 00:59:37.000
the right hand.

00:59:37.000 --> 00:59:38.140
From top to bottom.

00:59:38.140 --> 00:59:39.580
And I'll just read
you the times

00:59:39.580 --> 00:59:40.790
as we go, on a stopwatch.

00:59:40.790 --> 00:59:41.410
Ready?

00:59:41.410 --> 00:59:47.420
So left hand if it's unpleasant,
right hand if it's

00:59:47.420 --> 00:59:49.490
pleasant, OK?

00:59:49.490 --> 01:00:05.600
Here we go 9 seconds, 10
seconds, or 11 seconds, 13

01:00:05.600 --> 01:00:07.360
seconds, 14.

01:00:07.360 --> 01:00:08.760
OK all right, there's
some practice effect

01:00:08.760 --> 01:00:10.010
and all that stuff.

01:00:15.920 --> 01:00:21.100
OK now you're going
to have the names.

01:00:21.100 --> 01:00:25.430
Tap with you left hand if it's
a name that's more typical of

01:00:25.430 --> 01:00:27.120
an African-American, your
right hand if it's more

01:00:27.120 --> 01:00:28.430
typical of a European-American.

01:00:28.430 --> 01:00:28.690
Ready?

01:00:28.690 --> 01:00:29.940
Go.

01:00:37.510 --> 01:00:54.282
5,6,7,9,10,11,12,13 OK.

01:00:54.282 --> 01:00:57.970
OK, tap with your left hand if
the adjective is an unpleasant

01:00:57.970 --> 01:01:00.650
adjective or the name of an
African-American, your right

01:01:00.650 --> 01:01:02.680
hand if it's pleasant
or the name of a

01:01:02.680 --> 01:01:03.830
typical white American.

01:01:03.830 --> 01:01:06.720
OK so now it's a mixed list.

01:01:06.720 --> 01:01:07.950
Ready?

01:01:07.950 --> 01:01:25.330
Go 5 10 12,13,14,15.

01:01:25.330 --> 01:01:27.480
OK, so by about 15 we got
pretty much everybody.

01:01:31.900 --> 01:01:35.810
OK, we'll do this now, left
for a name typically

01:01:35.810 --> 01:01:38.130
associated in this kind of
experiment for a white

01:01:38.130 --> 01:01:39.560
American, right for
a black American.

01:01:39.560 --> 01:01:39.950
Ready?

01:01:39.950 --> 01:01:41.200
Go.

01:01:49.600 --> 01:01:59.440
8, 9, 10, 11, 12,13,14 OK.

01:01:59.440 --> 01:02:01.380
Now this is the last
one coming up.

01:02:01.380 --> 01:02:05.360
So now it's going to be left
hand if it's a unpleasant

01:02:05.360 --> 01:02:09.900
adjective or a white American
name, on the right if it's a

01:02:09.900 --> 01:02:12.290
pleasant or a black
American name.

01:02:12.290 --> 01:02:13.710
Ready?

01:02:13.710 --> 01:02:14.960
Go.

01:02:23.230 --> 01:02:36.900
8 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14,15
,16, 17,18,19, 20, 21,

01:02:36.900 --> 01:02:38.270
Still tapping, right?

01:02:38.270 --> 01:02:40.400
All right, so this is
a shock, right?

01:02:40.400 --> 01:02:42.420
I mean if you don't know this
lecture, it's a shock.

01:02:42.420 --> 01:02:46.500
And it's a shock because this
effect, which you heard

01:02:46.500 --> 01:02:50.040
yourself, happens in

01:02:50.040 --> 01:02:52.220
undergraduates across this country.

01:02:52.220 --> 01:02:55.550
People who are very convinced
that racism is wrong, they

01:02:55.550 --> 01:03:00.050
hold no stereotypes themselves
and with racism is wrong,

01:03:00.050 --> 01:03:01.250
they're definitely
right about that.

01:03:01.250 --> 01:03:05.670
Definitely don't foster
a stereotype, I

01:03:05.670 --> 01:03:08.090
mean you don't either.

01:03:08.090 --> 01:03:10.305
But in experiment after
experiment in a country, and

01:03:10.305 --> 01:03:13.680
there's literally hundreds of
these published, people on

01:03:13.680 --> 01:03:16.880
average are faster when they
have to do unpleasant and

01:03:16.880 --> 01:03:20.600
black or unpleasant white as if
it were easier to associate

01:03:20.600 --> 01:03:21.390
these two concepts.

01:03:21.390 --> 01:03:25.440
And we just did now you are the
easy condition you were

01:03:25.440 --> 01:03:27.450
all done in about 15 seconds.

01:03:27.450 --> 01:03:31.090
In the more difficult condition,
the unpleasant or

01:03:31.090 --> 01:03:33.830
white condition, there was still
tapping occurring at 20

01:03:33.830 --> 01:03:35.430
could have gone to 25 or 30.

01:03:35.430 --> 01:03:37.440
OK so you had that
experience, too.

01:03:37.440 --> 01:03:39.690
I heard you going I think
giggling, I think

01:03:39.690 --> 01:03:41.470
just because of shock.

01:03:41.470 --> 01:03:44.920
Because you say, if you're like
me, you say I harbor no

01:03:44.920 --> 01:03:47.640
prejudices, how did
this happen to me?

01:03:47.640 --> 01:03:51.150
So this experiment, and you
could look up a lot of

01:03:51.150 --> 01:03:53.890
information about this from
Mazarin Banaji at Harvard,

01:03:53.890 --> 01:03:55.760
who's sort of the leader of
this, with Tony Greenwald.

01:03:55.760 --> 01:03:59.420
They have a huge amount of
evidence about this.

01:03:59.420 --> 01:04:03.820
So one thing you kind of laughed
at, because it was so

01:04:03.820 --> 01:04:05.590
silly almost, the way
we set up here,

01:04:05.590 --> 01:04:07.720
were the names, right?

01:04:07.720 --> 01:04:09.470
Because it was kind of a
funny list of names.

01:04:09.470 --> 01:04:11.680
I could tell you the experiment
work identically,

01:04:11.680 --> 01:04:14.740
just about, if you
show pictures of

01:04:14.740 --> 01:04:15.910
white or black people.

01:04:15.910 --> 01:04:19.070
So the names is not an issue
in that case, OK?

01:04:19.070 --> 01:04:20.570
So it's a shocking thing.

01:04:20.570 --> 01:04:23.860
And where does it come from
that people are faster for

01:04:23.860 --> 01:04:25.990
white and pleasant than
black and pleasant?

01:04:25.990 --> 01:04:31.860
That occurs in 75% or people who
are white and about 50% of

01:04:31.860 --> 01:04:32.510
people who are black.

01:04:32.510 --> 01:04:35.500
So it's not as if black people
reverse that pattern, it's

01:04:35.500 --> 01:04:36.760
just they're even.

01:04:36.760 --> 01:04:40.600
And on average for white people
they find just easier

01:04:40.600 --> 01:04:45.340
to associate white things with
pleasant things than black

01:04:45.340 --> 01:04:46.990
names or faces with
pleasant things.

01:04:46.990 --> 01:04:47.778
Yeah?

01:04:47.778 --> 01:04:49.892
AUDIENCE: Was the experiment
ever done any other way, where

01:04:49.892 --> 01:04:54.620
you would tap first
or [INAUDIBLE]?

01:04:54.620 --> 01:04:55.600
PROFESSOR: Yes, yes.

01:04:55.600 --> 01:04:59.460
So you are absolutely correct
that in the demonstration now,

01:04:59.460 --> 01:05:01.410
I slightly loaded up
the order of these

01:05:01.410 --> 01:05:02.810
things to make it work.

01:05:02.810 --> 01:05:08.190
But why I give you this website
is to tell you that in

01:05:08.190 --> 01:05:11.160
hundreds of experiments where
that's all controlled for by

01:05:11.160 --> 01:05:12.880
reversing the order, half
the time and stuff,

01:05:12.880 --> 01:05:13.920
it all plays out.

01:05:13.920 --> 01:05:14.390
OK?

01:05:14.390 --> 01:05:17.510
It's a demonstration today,
slightly loaded it that way

01:05:17.510 --> 01:05:18.950
but there's hundreds of
experiments where

01:05:18.950 --> 01:05:19.820
it all plays out.

01:05:19.820 --> 01:05:21.800
In these numbers are first the
actual experiments where it

01:05:21.800 --> 01:05:23.180
all plays out.

01:05:23.180 --> 01:05:25.990
People worry about whether the
frequency of the names, that a

01:05:25.990 --> 01:05:30.210
name like Chip might be more
frequent, common than a name

01:05:30.210 --> 01:05:32.360
that's an African American name,
just by shear number.

01:05:32.360 --> 01:05:35.740
So therefore the pictures get
it out of the equation.

01:05:35.740 --> 01:05:38.140
People have worried about lots
of things about this.

01:05:38.140 --> 01:05:41.430
I think almost everybody agrees
the basic phenomenon

01:05:41.430 --> 01:05:44.270
holds up under well-controlled
experimental designs.

01:05:44.270 --> 01:05:46.100
That's an excellent question.

01:05:46.100 --> 01:05:47.250
Any other questions
about this?

01:05:47.250 --> 01:05:50.950
It's a very disturbing thing,
partly it shows you that

01:05:50.950 --> 01:05:53.930
stereotypes are out there,
unfortunately, to this day.

01:05:53.930 --> 01:05:56.980
Even with an African American
president, stereotypes are out

01:05:56.980 --> 01:05:58.650
there, in people's heads.

01:05:58.650 --> 01:06:01.560
They used to call it
a test of implicit

01:06:01.560 --> 01:06:03.050
attitudes because it--

01:06:03.050 --> 01:06:06.900
but now is this really an
attitude to the person has in

01:06:06.900 --> 01:06:07.300
their head?

01:06:07.300 --> 01:06:08.770
Or is it really they
know about a

01:06:08.770 --> 01:06:10.160
stereotype that's out there?

01:06:10.160 --> 01:06:12.420
It's still problematic to have
the stereotypes out there,

01:06:12.420 --> 01:06:14.170
even if it's not the
one you believe in,

01:06:14.170 --> 01:06:15.340
subscribe to, or live by.

01:06:15.340 --> 01:06:16.083
Yeah?

01:06:16.083 --> 01:06:18.383
AUDIENCE: [INAUDIBLE] actually
[INAUDIBLE] for the

01:06:18.383 --> 01:06:20.865
experiment.

01:06:20.865 --> 01:06:27.860
And whether they found that it
was more associated with your

01:06:27.860 --> 01:06:29.110
own proof--

01:06:34.310 --> 01:06:36.780
PROFESSOR: So with African
Americans it's about 50-50 on

01:06:36.780 --> 01:06:38.670
average, across them.

01:06:38.670 --> 01:06:39.490
It not reverse.

01:06:39.490 --> 01:06:43.870
It's not like, my group is
awesome, all other groups are

01:06:43.870 --> 01:06:46.140
not so awesome as my group
because I'm in my group.

01:06:46.140 --> 01:06:48.590
It could be that, and that also
would be problematic as

01:06:48.590 --> 01:06:49.990
much as anything.

01:06:49.990 --> 01:06:51.350
But it doesn't seem to
play out that way.

01:06:51.350 --> 01:06:54.080
It seems to play out a little
bit to what you might call--

01:06:54.080 --> 01:06:56.160
and then this will change, my
guess is-- to what is the

01:06:56.160 --> 01:06:58.770
dominant group in a society.

01:06:58.770 --> 01:07:00.840
And now the US is changing
in this regard, OK?

01:07:00.840 --> 01:07:04.590
But it's not changed yet.

01:07:04.590 --> 01:07:06.760
And you get these kinds of
things in lots of domains,

01:07:06.760 --> 01:07:08.490
we've talked about that
before it's not just

01:07:08.490 --> 01:07:09.610
about black and white.

01:07:09.610 --> 01:07:11.540
But the last thing
I'll show you--

01:07:11.540 --> 01:07:13.950
we'll be done in five minutes,
it's just two slides.

01:07:13.950 --> 01:07:16.570
It's sort of a follow
up on this.

01:07:16.570 --> 01:07:19.220
So here's an experiment that
was done at Dartmouth.

01:07:19.220 --> 01:07:22.130
And they had white participants
complete this

01:07:22.130 --> 01:07:25.270
task that you just did under
better control circumstances.

01:07:25.270 --> 01:07:28.130
So for each person they could
measure by how quickly they

01:07:28.130 --> 01:07:31.680
responded in the computer the
difference between responding

01:07:31.680 --> 01:07:33.740
to black and white names in
relation to pleasantness.

01:07:33.740 --> 01:07:37.270
So some person might be 10
milliseconds, different

01:07:37.270 --> 01:07:39.930
somebody might be 200
milliseconds different.

01:07:39.930 --> 01:07:42.940
People vary.

01:07:42.940 --> 01:07:45.760
But then they had them go
to a different room--

01:07:45.760 --> 01:07:47.370
and this is the critical thing--
to interact with

01:07:47.370 --> 01:07:49.690
either a black or white
experimenter.

01:07:49.690 --> 01:07:52.200
All the participants in this
experiment were white.

01:07:52.200 --> 01:07:55.760
Then they were told the reason
we're doing this is, we want

01:07:55.760 --> 01:07:57.800
to videotape you making comments
about the college

01:07:57.800 --> 01:08:00.350
fraternity system and racial
profiling after 9/11.

01:08:00.350 --> 01:08:02.600
That's kind of a cover story,
although the racial word was

01:08:02.600 --> 01:08:06.120
probably meant for them to think
a little bit about the

01:08:06.120 --> 01:08:07.000
test they did.

01:08:07.000 --> 01:08:09.150
They go into a room they
interact with a black or white

01:08:09.150 --> 01:08:12.420
experiment then they go back to
the original room and they

01:08:12.420 --> 01:08:15.580
perform a cognitively demanding
task, the Stroop

01:08:15.580 --> 01:08:18.560
task where you have to name
colors that are in the wrong

01:08:18.560 --> 01:08:21.180
color, which you've
seen many times in

01:08:21.180 --> 01:08:22.170
this course you already.

01:08:22.170 --> 01:08:24.880
And here's what they find.

01:08:24.880 --> 01:08:27.630
if you're a white person and you
had a white experimenter,

01:08:27.630 --> 01:08:30.310
this is the performance
on the Stroop task.

01:08:30.310 --> 01:08:34.710
It's unrelated to how you
did on the IAT test.

01:08:34.710 --> 01:08:38.750
This is the IAT test, the people
who are more along here

01:08:38.750 --> 01:08:41.660
had a bigger gap between
black and white, OK?

01:08:41.660 --> 01:08:43.180
So they varied.

01:08:43.180 --> 01:08:46.140
But look at the people who went
and took the IAT test

01:08:46.140 --> 01:08:48.950
like you just did, again under
more controlled circumstances.

01:08:48.950 --> 01:08:51.804
Now they go and do the Stroop
and look at the more their

01:08:51.804 --> 01:08:55.779
score reflected knowledge of the
stereotype, the more the

01:08:55.779 --> 01:08:58.600
knowledge of that stereotype
influenced in some way their

01:08:58.600 --> 01:08:59.600
performance--

01:08:59.600 --> 01:09:01.479
that's along this axis--

01:09:01.479 --> 01:09:06.439
the worse they did on the sort
of cognitively demanding task.

01:09:06.439 --> 01:09:14.160
As if the stress that harms
performance is occurring on

01:09:14.160 --> 01:09:17.260
both sides of racial
groups, right?

01:09:17.260 --> 01:09:19.790
We already said that stereotype
threat can diminish

01:09:19.790 --> 01:09:23.040
performance for people when
they're working in the area

01:09:23.040 --> 01:09:24.200
where there's a stereotypes
that they're not

01:09:24.200 --> 01:09:25.390
supposed to do well.

01:09:25.390 --> 01:09:28.020
Just thinking about that
diminishes their performance.

01:09:28.020 --> 01:09:31.370
And now for the other group for
the white participants,

01:09:31.370 --> 01:09:33.439
just thinking about
the stereotyping--

01:09:33.439 --> 01:09:34.770
and you may have that too.

01:09:34.770 --> 01:09:36.450
Just thinking like, what I do?

01:09:36.450 --> 01:09:37.700
Why was I slower for that?

01:09:37.700 --> 01:09:39.710
I'm not a prejudiced person,
how did I do that?

01:09:39.710 --> 01:09:43.529
The more their performance
looked like that, the worse

01:09:43.529 --> 01:09:44.819
they did on this task.

01:09:44.819 --> 01:09:48.370
As if again, now they were
having a part of their mind in

01:09:48.370 --> 01:09:50.430
the wrong place or
over-aroused and

01:09:50.430 --> 01:09:52.740
under-performing.

01:09:52.740 --> 01:09:56.460
So everybody's falling victim,
on both sides of this

01:09:56.460 --> 01:09:59.600
prospective, to these
racial stereotypes.

01:09:59.600 --> 01:10:02.990
Whether you're black or white,
it's disturbing to have that

01:10:02.990 --> 01:10:05.930
thought and it diminishes your
ability think clearly.

01:10:05.930 --> 01:10:10.060
So in that sense stereotypes
makes you stupider on

01:10:10.060 --> 01:10:12.100
performance in a cognitively
demanding task.

01:10:12.100 --> 01:10:15.250
there's so many forms of stress
and the one good thing

01:10:15.250 --> 01:10:17.880
is, psychologists are getting
better and better at

01:10:17.880 --> 01:10:20.000
discovering sources
of resilience.

01:10:20.000 --> 01:10:22.570
And we talked earlier in the
course, it includes resilience

01:10:22.570 --> 01:10:23.420
from stereotyped threat.

01:10:23.420 --> 01:10:26.520
We'd like to just get rid of
stereotypes today, but pending

01:10:26.520 --> 01:10:28.640
that we've talked about things
like essays and so on that

01:10:28.640 --> 01:10:31.430
work surprisingly risk
effectively sometimes.

01:10:31.430 --> 01:10:32.680
OK thanks very much.