Troubadours, Trobairitz, and Trouvères
When you listen to the excerpts below, please make sure to do so in a quiet environment, with headphones if possible. You should also listen carefully without other distractions, not while doing another task or reading something. At least listen to each excerpt once, but ideally you should listen a couple of times. Take note also of the bolded terms included throughout the reading. These are important terms and concepts to know and to focus on while doing the reading. At the end, look over the discussion questions below and post a comment with your thoughts on these questions. Your post should include at least one sentence per question. These posts are required and are part of your recitation grade for this class (see Syllabus for grading breakdown).
Written vs. Oral Traditions
One of the biggest challenges in studying Medieval music is that what we have is only what was written down (and even then only a small percentage of written music actually survived through the centuries more or less intact). So much of the day-to-day music that people made in this period was not written down or in some cases what was written was not a perfect record of what it actually sounded like. So much of the work that musicologists who specialize in the Medieval period have to do is reconstruct the music based not just on music notation but on other sources as well. This includes visual images depicting musicians performing as well as written accounts of music performances, often from diaries or other similar personal correspondence.
Almost all of the music involving instruments in the Medieval period was part of an oral tradition, meaning it was transmitted not by writing but by teaching and playing/hearing the music. In the case of vocal music with instrumental accompaniment, such as the troubadour songs we will discuss for this class, we do have notation for the single vocal melody with words, but no indication of what the instrumental accompaniment would have been. We only know from the other types of sources (visual and prose accounts) that troubadours did play instruments to accompany their singing, most likely improvising or at least playing from established conventions. Thus, modern performers today have to reconstruct what those accompaniments might have sounded like, or in some cases, just perform the songs without instruments, using only what was written down: the vocal melody. We will hear some of these different interpretations of troubadour song in the examples for this class.
Music at Court: Song and Dance
Sometimes the Medieval period has been referred to as the “Dark Ages,” partly because of the significant lack of surviving written sources when compared to the Roman Empire. This term is a misnomer which has since been rejected by historians in favor of the Middle Ages or the Medieval period instead. Yet, even the term “Middle Ages” frames this period as a waypoint “in the middle” between the supposed cultural highs of Classical Antiquity (Ancient Greece and Rome) and the Renaissance or Early Modern period from about 1500. In fact, the Medieval period had plenty of culture all its own. It is because literacy rates were lower than in the Roman period that fewer written sources remain and to us it can seem like a cultural (and scientific) dark period.
During this time, writing was generally restricted to those with the resources for education: members of the clergy, members of the nobility, or educated scribes who were paid for their work. Because of this, most of the written sources of music come from either the church or aristocratic courts. However, this does not represent the true breadth of music-making in the Medieval period as there were plenty of instrumental and popular genres that were enjoyed by many people of all socio-economic classes but which were not usually written down.
Of the music from courts which we have, there are a few different kinds. First, there are many types of monophonic songs, such as troubadour songs in France, which (as mentioned above) often had unwritten instrumental accompaniment. Second, we have many poems which were set to music that is now lost, while only the poetry survives. This tells us that music was used to accompany the recitation of poetry in court, but does not tell us what that music sounded like. Finally, there is some instrumental dance music that has been written down, which is also usually monophonic. It does not tell us what instruments were used; rather, many different instruments could play this single melody such as the vielle (ancestor of the modern violin), early types of flutes, lutes or harps. In addition, it is likely that percussion instruments such as the small drum called a tabor would be used, but the musicians would likely improvise the drum part. The images in the next section of the reading show what some of these instruments looked like.
Medieval Musicians
While many people would have played instruments for their own enjoyment, there were musicians of different kinds in the Medieval period. Some were nobles such as many of the troubadours who had musical training but treated music more as a hobby than a job. It was a sign of status and wealth to be educated enough to play an instrument and sing and write poetry. On the other hand, there were working class musicians who played for a living and by the 12th century, these professionals were organized into guilds (somewhat similar to a modern musicians’ union) that provided legal protections, exclusive rights to members to perform in a specific city or region, and established rules for professional conduct.
Furthermore, despite often strict societal norms surrounding gender, there were women as well as men who regularly performed as musicians, both noble and working class. However, working class women had a bit more freedom to do so as for noble women there were expectations of both gender and status which allowed them to participate only in certain circumstances. We will see in the examples below a troubadour song by the Comtessa de Dia, a noblewoman who composed a number of songs in the late 12th century. Often, as in her case, she might have written the poem and composed the melody but would likely have handed it off to another musician to actually perform. Female troubadours such as the Comtessa de Dia were called trobairitz. Historically, these contributions by women such as the Comtessa were not recognized because they are not well represented in the written sources which survive. But the fact that their music was not written down as frequently or was not preserved does not mean that they did not also participate in composition and music-making in this period.
The Troubadours
The troubadours were primarily active in the southern region of France, particularly the duchy of Aquitaine. In this region, most people spoke a language related to French called Occitan or Provençal, which is now nearly extinct. Troubadour songs are usually written in this language. Later, some troubadours would migrate north; in the northern part of France, they were called trouvères and there they wrote songs in Old French. There is also a related tradition of monophonic song in German-speaking lands at the time called Minnesang (literally meaning love song), however, we will be focusing solely on the Occitan troubadours in this class.
The terms troubadour and trouvère come from the Occitan and French words (respectively) which mean “to compose.” So, troubadour essentially means “composer”; however, the root of these words means “to find” or “invent.” In a way, troubadours were thought to “find” or “invent” their songs. This reflects a Medieval understanding of music and poetry composition which is slightly different from our modern conception. Instead of a composer expressing some kind of personal artistic vision (primarily a 19th-century concept), Medieval composers were seen to be like artisans who skillfully crafted the poetry and music by “finding” or “inventing” it as if from an external source, rather than an internal, personal one.
The subjects for these songs could vary, but by far the most common topic was love. However, it was a specific type of love often called chivalric love or courtly love. This was a highly idealized and poetic concept of love, usually from the perspective of a man whose love interest is a noblewoman who is already married to someone else. Typically, the songs might be about unrequited love or the concept of l’amour de loin or “love from a distance.” The nobility of this kind of love was that it could never be acted upon and therefore was seen as pure and uncorrupted.
While the topic of courtly love was important to the function of this music at court, the poetry was also important. The troubadour or trobairitz could show off his or her intelligence and wit by writing cleverly crafted poetry and setting it to an equally well-written melody. So, while troubadour songs certainly were performed as highbrow entertainment at court, there is also an element of demonstration of education and cultural prowess.
As examples of troubadour songs, we will listen to two songs by two different troubadours: one man and one woman, one noble and one commoner. In addition, the different recordings of each will show different ways in which modern performers realize this music today (see the end of this reading for a more detailed discussion of this issue).
Bernart de Ventadorn
First, our one example of a non-noble troubadour is Bernart de Ventadorn (1135–1194), who is one of the best known and most influential troubadours. Most details of his life are unclear and many accounts may exaggerate or even fictionalize some aspects. For instance, one account claims he was the son of either a servant, baker, or soldier at the castle of Ventadorn (Château de Ventadour) in Corrèze in the south of France, but other accounts disagree. One of Bernart’s early poems suggests he received training in both singing and writing from the viscount Eble of Ventadorn (possibly either Eble II or his son Eble III), whom Bernart worked for as a servant. The story goes that Bernart wrote poems to Eble’s wife, Marguerite de Turenne, eventually falling in love with her and being forced to leave Ventadour. Of course, this story falls neatly in line with the idea of courtly/chivalric love, in that he supposedly fell in love with a married woman and had to leave because he could not be with her. So the veracity of this story can certainly be questioned, although it may be based in some truth.
After leaving Ventadour, Bernart traveled to Toulouse where he met Eleanor of Aquitaine, the Duchess of Aquitaine who was also Queen of France (by marriage to King Louis VII) and later Queen of England (by marriage to King Henry II). Eleanor was an important patron of poets and composers such as Bernart and he would follow her from Toulouse eventually to England. Later in life, he returned to Toulouse and worked for Raimon V, Count of Toulouse, and then finally ended up in Dordogne at a monastery, where he eventually died.
As a poet-composer, Bernart is credited with 45 poems and 18 surviving melodies, making him the most prolific troubadour (in terms of output that actually survives). He also helped to formalize the style of troubadour songs and courtly love poetry which would then be imitated by others who followed. Finally, his travels and the fame that he achieved with the popularity of his songs meant that he significantly helped to transplant the troubadour tradition outside of the Occitan region to northern France and elsewhere in northern Europe.
While most troubadour melodies are through-composed (each line of poetry receives a different musical setting), Bernart actually preferred to repeat sections of melody. Of his 18 surviving melodies, only 3 are through-composed while 12 are in some kind of strophic form, a form where the same music repeats for each stanza of the poem.
Possibly his best-known song and the best-known melody in the whole Medieval period is Can vei la lauzeta mover. Although the original poem was in Provençal, there exist other poems in four different languages that were specifically set to this melody. See the image below for an excerpt of this melody as it was copied in a book of musical poetry called a chansonnier. You’ll note that it looks fairly similar to plainchant notation in that it indicates pitch and how the words correspond to those pitches but gives very little indication of rhythm. Since this is all we have to go on for most troubadour songs, it requires performers to decide whether to sing this freely, the way plainchant usually is, or with a more regular and metric rhythm.
This copy would have been made well after Bernart’s death, as not all songs were written down by the troubadours themselves but rather written down later by those who were attempting to preserve the tradition. Because of this, notated sources often disagree in terms of words or music and may not represent precisely what Bernart wrote but rather how others performed his music in the ensuing decades and centuries. In fact, some lower-class troubadours may not have been able to read and write, but may have participated in troubadour song as an oral tradition.
This particular song is a canso or love song which is one of the multiple types of troubadour song. Other types include the alba (dawn song) and tenso (debate song). Troubadour love songs often depict the courtly love trope of loving from afar or unrequited love for an unattainable person.
Before you listen to this song, read the Occitan poem and English translation below. Then listen to the song at least once or twice while following along with the poem. Pay close attention to where the melody repeats. This song is strophic, so each stanza of the poem will be sung to the same melody. In addition, you will find that each stanza is split in two groups of four lines of poetry. The melody will also follow this division. Also, as it relates to one of the discussion questions below, listen for what the mood or emotion of the music is and whether you feel that it connects to the emotion of the words, or not.
Finally, please note that our listening example does not include the complete poem, but rather only has stanzas 1, 2, 7 and the closing four-line section called an envoi. For the sake of clarity, I have only included those parts of the poem below which apply to our recording, but if you are interested, you can read the whole poem.
Bernart de Ventadorn, “Can vei la lauzeta mover,” troubadour song (c. 1150)
Recording performed by Ensemble Alla Francesca (Emmanuel Bonnardot, Raphaël Boulay, Pierre Hamon, and Brigitte Lesne), 1996 Opus 111. [Listen on YouTube]
Text and translation by Todd Tarantino
Comtessa de Dia
One of the few trobairitz (women troubadours) whose poetry survives is the Comtessa (Countess) de Dia (c. 1140–1212). In fact, her song “A chantar,” which we will listen to, is the only such song by a woman for which the melody survives. While we may have poetry for others, the music is since lost. Little is known about her life and, similarly to Bernart, much of it comes from sources which are either conflicting or may be partially fictionalized. In fact, not even her first name is known for sure, although one document mentions a “Beatrix comitissa” who was married to Guilhem de Poitiers, the Count of Viennois (the area around modern day Vienne in southeast France). But it is unclear if this was in fact her. The “de Dia” in her name likely means that she was born in Dia, a town on the Drôme river in southeast France, possibly a daughter of Count Isoard II of Dia.
“A chantar” survives with its melody in a manuscript now held by the Bibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris. In the image below, you can see the first stanza with text and melody as it was copied in this manuscript. As with Bernart de Ventadorn’s song, this manuscript was copied much later (around 1270) as a record of a song which probably had been performed and passed on orally (or in written copies not retained) for at least a century.
Pay attention to how the melody follows the poetry, which is carefully crafted in terms of both number of syllables per line as well as the rhyme scheme. Because the melody repeats in each stanza, this song is also strophic, but within each stanza there is an internal form which follows the pattern AAB where A and B represent different subsections of the melody. This is known as bar form. In the case of “A chantar,” this works out to the A melody applying to lines 1**–2 and then repeating on 3–4, while the (longer) B melody covers lines 5–7. The whole AAB structure then repeats for stanzas 2–**5. At the end of the poem there is a short closing section (the envoi) similar to the one at the end of Bernart’s song (though only two lines here). This envoi interrupts the strophic and bar forms and signals the end of the song. Note also that the speaker of the poem switches from speaking to her lover to addressing the song as a “messenger” to him for these last two lines.
As with the Bernart song, listen both for how the poetic and musical structures relate, but also consider whether the emotion in the music matches the emotion in the poem, in your opinion.
Comtessa de Dia, “A chantar m’er de so qu’eu no volria,” troubadour song (late 12th century). Recording performed by Ensemble A Chantar and Regina Kabis (vocals), 2011 Christophorus. [Listen on YouTube]
Early Music Performance
One final note to leave you with. Having listened to these two songs, we can see two examples of ways in which modern performers approach pieces which involve an oral tradition of performance. We know from other sources that instruments were used to accompany these songs, but the notated music tells us little about what that sounded like. Some performers, such as those in our two examples, try to reconstruct instrumental parts as best they can. However, this is basically just educated guessing. In addition, the musicians may realize these songs with slightly more defined rhythms in an audible meter, or they may use a very free rhythmic manner, similar to that of plainchant, which is unmetered. While we do not know for sure what rhythms or meters would have been used, these examples do show that different performers today may make different choices for different reasons and that any recording we listen to is at best an approximation of what the song might have sounded like.
Discussion Questions
Please read the following questions and think about them in relation to what you have read and listened to above. Then, post a comment with your thoughts on each question, at least one sentence per question.
- How do troubadour songs compare musically to plainchant? In what ways are they similar and in what ways are they different? Use musical terminology from recitation 1a in your answer.
- How does the music in these two examples relate to the emotion of the poem? Does it evoke the same emotion as the text? Or not? Identify specific musical elements you hear using our terminology in your answer.
- How do the two approaches to performance (both vocal and instrumental) in these examples change how you experience the poetry? Which version appeals to you more? Include specific musical elements using our terminology in your answer.
