Art Song and Music for Smaller Venues
Although going by many names depending on the language, art song usually refers to a genre that began in the mid-to-late 18th century for solo voice and (usually) piano accompaniment, which sets a short poem to music. The term “art song” is often used to distinguish from popular songs (the earlier equivalent of today’s pop music). While art song comes in many languages, the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a flourishing of the genre in German, where it was called Lieder. The term “Lieder” is the German plural for Lied, which simply means “song.” Some Classical period composers, such as Mozart and Beethoven, wrote a number of Lieder, but the early Romantic period was particularly fruitful for the genre, with composers like Franz Schubert, Clara Schumann, and Robert Schumann. Some of these composers also started to create song cycles, that is, collections of Lieder, often with texts by the same poet, which are put in a particular order and published together. In some ways, this is an earlier version of the concept album in pop music, where there is a narrative or other connecting thread among all the songs. To see how this genre developed, we’ll look at a few examples by a number of different composers, some of which share the same text, in order to compare them.
In terms of form, Lieder generally come in two varieties: strophic or through-composed. We’ve encountered both of these forms before, but it’s worth reviewing here. “Strophic” means that each stanza of text gets the same music, although in some cases, composers might use a modified strophic form in which one or more stanzas are significantly changed but still recognizable as the same melody. “Through-composed” means that each stanza gets different music, and often this form is much more responsive to the meaning of the text as it changes from stanza to stanza. Typically, through-composed form is used for more narrative poems that tell a linear story, and strophic form is used for more lyrical poems that don’t have a narrative.
Like the string quartet in a slightly earlier period, Lieder were intended to be performed primarily in more domestic venues, often by amateurs. They were intended to be accessible, so for the most part, they are not incredibly difficult to play or sing (with some exceptions, such as Schubert’s “Erlkönig” below). Frequently, they were published in multiple keys so that anyone with any voice type (high, medium, or low) could sing them.
Content warning: in the section on the first song below “Erlkönig” there is discussion of attempted rape and assault of a child. While I would prefer that you listen to the music regardless (as it is not explicit in the song itself), if you feel the need to skip that portion of the reading assignment, that is more than fine.
Erlkönig
One of the poems which was set many times by many different composers is “Erlkönig” (The Erlking or Elf-King), written by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) in 1782.
Goethe’s poems were extremely popular in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, and his poems were set to music by many composers, including Mozart and Beethoven. “Erlkönig” is a ballad, a narrative poem, that is essentially the 18th-century equivalent of a horror movie. You can read the translation below, but the gist is that a father and his son are riding home on a horse at night, while pursued by the spirit of the evil Erlking, who is trying to lure the boy away. While many English translations sanitize the text, the original German makes clear that the Erlking’s intentions are not just to kidnap the boy but to actually rape him. This is made especially clear in the second-to-last stanza, where the Erlking says, “I love you, your beautiful form excites me. And if you’re not willing, I’ll use force.” In the end, the boy dies in the father’s arms.
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Wer reitet so spät durch Nacht und Wind? Es ist der Vater mit seinem Kind; Er hat den Knaben wohl in dem Arm, Er faßt ihn sicher, er hält ihn warm.
Mein Sohn, was birgst du so bang dein Gesicht? Siehst, Vater, du den Erlkönig nicht? Den Erlenkönig mit Kron’ und Schweif? Mein Sohn, es ist ein Nebelstreif.
“Du liebes Kind, komm, geh mit mir! Gar schöne Spiele spiel’ ich mit dir; Manch’ bunte Blumen sind an dem Strand, Meine Mutter hat manch gülden Gewand.”
Mein Vater, mein Vater, und hörest du nicht, Was Erlenkönig mir leise verspricht? Sei ruhig, bleibe ruhig, mein Kind; In dürren Blättern säuselt der Wind.
“Willst, feiner Knabe, du mit mir gehn? Meine Töchter sollen dich warten schön; Meine Töchter führen den nächtlichen Reihn, Und wiegen und tanzen und singen dich ein.”
Mein Vater, mein Vater, und siehst du nicht dort Erlkönigs Töchter am düstern Ort? Mein Sohn, mein Sohn, ich seh’ es genau: Es scheinen die alten Weiden so grau.
“Ich liebe dich, mich reizt deine schöne Gestalt; Und bist du nicht willig, so brauch’ ich Gewalt.” Mein Vater, mein Vater, jetzt faßt er mich an! Erlkönig hat mir ein Leids getan!
Dem Vater grauset’s; er reitet geschwind, Er hält in den Armen das ächzende Kind, Erreicht den Hof mit Mühe und Not; In seinen Armen, das Kind war tot. |
Who rides, so late, through night and wind? It is the father with his child. He has the boy well in his arm, He holds him safely, he keeps him warm.
My son, why do you hide your face in fear? Father, do you not see the Erl-King? The Erl-King with crown and cape? My son, it is a streak of fog.
“You dear child, come, go with me! (Very) beautiful games, I play with you; Many colourful flowers are on the beach, My mother has many a golden robe.”
My father, my father, and do you not hear What the Erl-King quietly promises me? Be calm, stay calm, my child; Through dry leaves, the wind is sighing.
“Do you, fine boy, want to go with me? My daughters shall wait on you finely; My daughters lead the nightly dance, And rock and dance and sing to bring you in.”
My father, my father, and don’t you see there The Erl-King’s daughters in the gloomy place? My son, my son, I see it clearly: There shimmer the old willows so grey.
“I love you, your beautiful form excites me; And if you’re not willing, then I will use force.” My father, my father, he’s touching me now! The Erl-King has done me harm!
It horrifies the father; he swiftly rides on, He holds the moaning child in his arms, Reaches the farm with great difficulty; In his arms, the child was dead. |
Schubert’s “Erlkönig” (1815)
While many composers have set this text to music, Schubert’s version is now probably the most famous and best-known setting. One of the few pieces by Schubert that was published within his own lifetime, his “Erlkönig” was an immediate hit with everyone, it seems, except Goethe himself, who did not like the through-composed form (as opposed to strophic). See this image of the title page of an early published edition of this song, including an illustration of the scene.
His through-composed music deftly depicts the different characters. Despite the through-composed form, some melodies do return, but not enough to be considered strophic. In addition, the piano part is somewhat independent and helps to depict the story. However, the piano does not have an equal role to the voice, and remains as accompaniment throughout.
The singer is required to depict each character differently. To allow this, Schubert gives each character a different vocal range, different rhythms, and different harmonies. The narrator (mostly in the first and last stanzas) is fairly neutral, while the son is high in the singer’s range (and gets higher each time he frantically cries out for help) and the father is low in pitch. The Erlking is also somewhat higher than the father, but for that character, the singer must sing in a sickly sweet, lyrical melody that in context, is repulsive rather than enticing. Meanwhile, the piano thunders in triplets throughout in one of the most difficult piano parts to play in the classical repertoire; these triplets depict the horse’s hooves as it gallops through the night, stopping only at the end when they reach the house. Yet, the piano does change when the Erlking speaks, and so its accompaniment helps to depict the characters as well. Take a listen to Schubert’s setting and follow along with the text. See if you can hear some of the ways in which Schubert depicts each character musically.
Schubert, “Erlkönig” (through-composed Lied), 1815
Recording performed by Thomas Quastoff (baritone) and Charles Spencer (piano).
Finally, it is important to remember that these pieces, when performed live, include the performer’s movements, gestures, and facial expressions as visual components of the performance in addition to the music. So portraying the characters in this song is partly the singer’s voice, partly the composer’s music, and partly the singer’s performance movements. Watch this video [YouTube]. of renowned baritone Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau performing “Erlkönig” and see how he portrays each character with his face.
Clara Schumann
Another important composer of Lieder is Clara Schumann, née Wieck (1819–1896). Part of a later generation of Romantic composers than Schubert, Schumann was a piano prodigy from a young age, in many ways similar to Mozart and Beethoven. Her official debut as a piano virtuoso was at the age of nine, and by her teens, she was established as a well-known performer across Europe. In addition to playing piano, she also learned to compose at a young age. She composed her famous Piano Concerto in A minor at 14. Most of her compositions involve the piano, including solo works, Lieder, chamber music, and orchestral works with piano.
At age 18, she became engaged to composer Robert Schumann (1810–1856), and at age 21, she married him. (See below for more on why they had to wait that long). While she continued to compose during their marriage, she was unfortunately forced to set aside the possibility of making a career out of composition due to social norms of gender roles at the time. In addition to helping her husband in his compositional efforts, she continued to perform (she was always a much better piano player than Robert) and to teach. Outliving Robert by forty years, Clara cultivated a circle of musical friends, including violinist Joseph Joachim (1831–1907) and composer Johannes Brahms (1833–1897).
Quick note: In the rest of this assignment, I will primarily refer to Clara and Robert by their first names instead of last names in order to be clear about which Schumann I’m talking about.
As examples of her approach to Lieder, let’s look at a song from her Op. 13 collection of six Lieder, composed between 1842–43 and published in 1843. This collection sets six poems by the German poet Emanuel von Geibel (1815–1884).
“Der Mond kommt still gegangen”
This poem follows a fairly typical pattern in that it begins by describing a scene in striking visual terms, but in the last stanza features a twist that reveals something about the speaker of the poem, who can only see their beloved from afar. Here is the text and translation:
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Der Mond kommt still gegangen Mit seinem gold’nen Schein. Da schläft in holdem Prangen Die müde Erde ein.
Und auf den Lüften schwanken Aus manchem treuen Sinn Viel tausend Liebesgedanken Über die Schläfer hin.
Und drunten im Tale, da funkeln Die Fenster von Liebchens Haus; Ich aber blicke im Dunklen Still in die Welt hinaus. |
The moon rises silently With its golden glow. The weary earth then falls asleep In beauty and splendour.
Many thousand loving thoughts From many faithful minds Sway on the breezes Over those who slumber.
And down in the valley The windows sparkle of my beloved’s house; But I in the darkness gaze Silently out into the world. |
Clara sets the poem strophically, but uses a modified strophic form to depict this shift in the last stanza. The first two stanzas are nearly identical musically but the third changes the vocal melody slightly so that there is a high note on “Liebchens Haus.” Then, at the end, there is a piano postlude after the singer finishes. Here, the piano takes on a slightly more prominent role instead of merely accompaniment. The postlude meanders a bit but also moves from the major mode of the majority of the song to briefly touch on minor (modal mixture). This use of modal mixture at the end helps to inject a bit of sadness into the otherwise major-sounding song, reflecting the distance that the speaker must remain away from the beloved.
Clara Schumann, “Der Mond kommt still gegangen” (modified strophic Lied), 1843
Recording performed by Barbara Bonney (soprano) and Vladimir Ashkenazy (piano).
Dichterliebe and “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai”
One last pair of Lieder will suffice to round out our discussion. Here, I’d like you to listen to two different settings of the poem, “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai” by the poet Heinrich Heine (1797–1856). The two settings are by Robert Schumann and Fanny Hensel, née Mendelssohn (1805–1847), sister of composer Felix Mendelssohn.
The first is part of Robert Schumann’s song cycle of poems by Heine called Dichterliebe (Poet’s Love). This cycle was composed in 1840, during the period when Robert had to wait to marry Clara. Although they became engaged a few years earlier, Clara’s father refused to give permission for the marriage. After a protracted legal battle, Clara’s father allowed her to marry Robert, but only after she had turned 21. So Dichterliebe was composed during a period of waiting in which Robert had won the legal battle but had to wait for her to turn 21. The choice of poems and the order in which he puts them suggest someone who is in love but grows despairing over whether that love will be fulfilled. “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai” (In the wondrous month of May) is the first in this cycle. In the poem, there are only two stanzas which (as with the Clara Schumann examples) seem to be depicting a beautiful spring nature scene, but clearly the speaker, while walking on a spring day, is not feeling very happy. He is in love but seems unsure as to whether that love is returned. See the text and translation below:
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Im wunderschönen Monat Mai, Als alle Knospen sprangen, Da ist in meinem Herzen Die Liebe aufgegangen.
Im wunderschönen Monat Mai, Als alle Vögel sangen, Da hab’ ich ihr gestanden Mein Sehnen und Verlangen. |
In the wondrous month of May, When all the buds burst into bloom, Then it was that in my heart Love began to burgeon.
In the wondrous month of May, When all the birds were singing, Then it was I confessed to her My longing and desire. |
The fact that the first line of each stanza is the same invites a strophic setting, but the ambiguous way the poem ends suggests a more open-ended approach. The speaker indicates that he confesses his love to “her,” but the poem does not say how she responds. It leaves that up to our interpretation. These two settings take that very differently. Robert’s setting features a clearly strophic vocal melody, but one that expresses doubt and uncertainty rather than the beauty of nature. The voice rises to a high note on the last word of each stanza (“aufgegangen” and “Verlangen”) before falling down a step, ending not on a clear cadence but on an ambiguous pitch. Meanwhile, the piano part meanders through a repeating accompaniment that is harmonically ambiguous. The song is ostensibly in A major, but the piano part frequently suggests F# minor instead, including at its entrance in the beginning, only reaching A major when the voice comes in. In addition, the piano ends with the same meandering melody in minor that it began, suggesting not only that the song begins in the middle of a scene already in progress but also does not resolve the major/minor tension or provide a clear cadence at the end. Thus, Robert’s setting clearly falls on the side of unrequited love and focuses on the doubt that the speaker is feeling, foreshadowing the despair that the songs later in the cycle will express. Yet, this important role that the piano plays in shaping this interpretation shows that he is writing it not just as background accompaniment but as an independent agent of musical expression.
Robert Schumann, “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai” (strophic Lied), 1840
Recording performed by Fritz Wunderlich (tenor) and Hubert Giesen (piano). [Listen on YouTube]
Hensel’s “Im wunderschönen Monat mai”
The other setting of this text by Fanny Hensel is quite different. First, it is a duet for two voices and piano, somewhat unusual in the genre and not part of a larger song cycle. Second, the character or mood of this setting is strikingly different. Where Schumann’s setting was harmonically ambiguous and meandering, Hensel’s is light, happy, and bouncy. The two voices sing primarily in harmony with each other, while the piano bounces along. Her setting is also strophic, but it repeats some of the text to extend the very short poem. Especially the first line “Im wunderschönen Monat mai” is repeated frequently, and also the second line of each stanza (referencing buds blooming into flowers and birds singing) is repeated as well. Hensel seems to be focused more on the spring imagery than the doubt and possibly unrequited love. The bouncy rhythms and happy melodies are quite catchy, but the question remains as to how to interpret them in light of the poem.
It is quite possible that Hensel was simply trying to write a setting that reflected the nature imagery and the brightness of spring, without dwelling too much on the emotional aspects of the poem. Or perhaps she interpreted the poem differently from Robert Schumann, and instead of seeing unrequited love in the ambiguous ending, decided to express a happier ending for the speaker of this poem. Maybe in this case, the unnamed person that the speaker loves did return his feelings, and so he is joyously exclaiming, “In the wondrous month of May!” The fact that this is a duet might even be intended to reflect the two lovers singing together.
Hensel, “Im wunderschönen Monat Mai” (modified strophic Lied) (duet), 1837
Recording performed by Felicitas and Judith Erb (sopranos) and Doriana Tchakarova (piano). [Listen on YouTube]
Discussion Questions
- Compare strophic form to through-composed form. How does the choice of form for these Lieder change your listening experience?
- Lieder are driven by the text. What are some of the ways that these composers responded to the text in creating their music?
- What is the relationship between piano and voice? How is the piano used differently in these different settings?
