See the Schedule Summaries page for more information about when the experiments are to be completed by the 8.13 and 8.14 students.
| 8.13 Experimental Physics I (Fall) |
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Regular Experiments |
| 8.14 Experimental Physics II (Spring) |
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Regular Experiments |
Note: “Athena” is MIT’s academic computing environment. Many of the lab guides provide instructions for on-campus students to carry out some portion of their work on Athena, which is not available to OCW users.
A 2.5 meter computer-controlled alt-azimuth parabolic dish antenna. (Image courtesy of MIT Junior Lab staff.)
This experiment measures the Doppler spectrum of interstellar atomic hydrogen and the dynamics of the galactic rotation. A 2.5-meter computer-controlled alt-azimuth parabolic dish antenna, located on a roof at MIT, is used with a heterodyne measurement chain and digital correlator to observe the Doppler spectrum of the 21-cm hyperfine line of interstellar atomic hydrogen in various directions along the Milky Way. Features of the spiral-arm structure of the Galaxy are deduced from the measured radial velocities of the HI clouds in the galactic disc.
21-cm Radio Astrophysics Lab Guide (PDF)
Ewen, H. I., and E. M. Purcell. “Observation of a Line in the Galactic Radio Spectrum.” Nature 168 (1951): 356.
Lerner, Rita G., and George L. Trigg. “Radio Astronomy.” In Encyclopedia of Physics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1981, pp. 41-42. ISBN: 9780201043136.
Kraus, John D. “Radio Astronomy of the Sun.” in Radio Astronomy: 2nd Edition. Durham: Cygnus-Quasar Books, 1986. ISBN: 9781882484003.
———. “Hydrogen Line Emission and Galactic Structure.” in Radio Astronomy: 2nd Edition. Durham: Cygnus-Quasar Books, 1986. ISBN: 9781882484003.
Schlovsky, I., R. B. Rodman, and C. M. Varsavsky. “Monochromatic Galactic Radio Waves.” Chapter 4 in Cosmic Radio Waves. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960. ISBN: 9780674174511.
Mihalas, Dimitri, and James Binney. “Galactic Rotation and the Spiral Structure of Our Galaxy.” Chapter 8 in Galactic Astronomy. San Francisco, CA: W.H. Freeman, 1968.
Shu, Frank H. “Our Galaxy: The Milky Way System.” Chapter 12 in The Physical Universe: An Introduction to Astronomy. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books, 1982. ISBN: 9780935702057.
This reference gives a clear description of the interpretation of 21cm spectra in terms of the rotation curve of the Galaxy.
Particle Data Group: Astrophysical Constants and Parameters (PDF)
Tuve, M. A., and S. Lundsager. “Velocity Structures in Hydrogen Profiles: A Sky Atlas of Neutral Hydrogen Emission.” Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication, no. 630 (1973). ISBN: 9780872796416.
Van de Hulst, H.C. “The Spiral Structure of the Outer Part of the Galactic System Derived from the Hydrogen Emission at 21cm Wave Length.” Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands, Vol. 12, Number 452, (1954): 117-149.
Kerr, F. J. “The Large Scale Distribution of Hydrogen in the Galaxy.” Annu. Rev. Astro. Astrophys, Vol. 7, Number 1 (1969): 39-66.
Haystack Radio Telescope User’s Manual (PDF)
NOAA Solar Position Calculator
Wikipedia Entry on the Milky Way Galaxy
Cambridge University Press Handbook of Space Astronomy and Astrophysics
Kraus, John D. “Radio-Telescopy Antennas.” in Radio Astronomy: 2nd Edition. Durham: Cygnus-Quasar Books, 1986. ISBN: 9781882484003.
Kraus, John D. “Radio-Telescopy Recievers.” in Radio Astronomy: 2nd Edition. Durham: Cygnus-Quasar Books, 1986. ISBN: 9781882484003.
UC San Diego Center for Astrophysics & Space Sciences - Prof. Gene Smith’s Astronomy Tutorial
Haystack Observatory’s Small Radio Telescope Website is a very important site for students to investigate. Detailed block diagrams and schematics of the 21-cm receiver, mount and ground controller are available there.
Electronic Noise Calibrator for the Small Radio Telescope (PDF)
MIT course 6.661 Receivers, Antennas, and Signals on MIT OpenCourseWare
Compton scattering experiment equipment.
Compton scattering, discovered by Arthor H. Compton, is the scattering of high-energy photons by electrons. High-energy (662 keV) photons in a collimated beam from a radioactive 137 Cs source are scattered from electrons in a target which is itself a scintillation counter which detects the recoil electron. The scattered photons are detected in a second scintillation counter. The distribution in size of pulses from either the target or the scatter counter are recorded by a multichannel analyzer gated by pulses from a coincidence circuit activated by coincident pulses from the two detectors. In the first part of the experiment both scintillators are NaI crystals, and the energies of the scattered photons and the recoil electrons are measured as functions of the scattering angle; the results are compared with the theory of Compton scattering.
In the second part the target is a plastic scintillator, and the relative intensities of scattered photons are recorded at several scattering angles. The results, normalized to a separate measurement of the total scattering cross section of the plastic scintillator, are used to derive the differential scattering cross section; the results are compared with the Thomson and the Klein-Nishina formulas for the scattering of photons by free electrons.
Compton Scattering Lab Guide (PDF)
Compton, Arthur H. Nobel Prize Lecture, “X-rays as a Branch of Optics.” (1927).
———. Abstract for “Wave-length Measurements of Scattered X-rays.” The Physical Review 21 (1923): 715.
———. “The Spectrum of Scattered X-Rays.” The Physical Review 22, (1923): 409-413.
———. “A Quantum Theory of the Scattering of X-Rays by Light Elements.” The Physical Review 21, (1922): 483-502.
Hofstadter, Robert, and John A. McIntyre. “Measurement of Gamma-Ray Energies with Two Crystals in Coincidence.” The Physical Review 78 (1950): 619-620.
Lazar, N. H., R. C. Davis, and P. R. Bell. “Peak Efficiency of NaI.” Nucleonics 14 (April 1956): 52.
Melissinos, Adrian C. “Compton Scattering.” In Experiments in Modern Physics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1966, pp. 253-265.
Garner, R. P., and K. Verghese. “On the Solid Angle Subtended by a Circular Disc.” Nuclear Instruments and Methods 93 (1971): 163-167.
Higbie, J. “Undergraduate Relativity Experiment.” American Journal of Physics 42 (1974): 642-644.
Knoll, G. F. “Optimization of Counting Experiments.” In Radiation Detection and Measurement. 3rd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley, 2000, pp. 92-95. ISBN: 9780471073383.
———. “Radiation Spectroscopy with Scintillators.” In Radiation Detection and Measurement. 3rd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley, 2000, pp. 306-355. ISBN: 9780471073383.
Spectroscopy experiment device.
Traditionally, optical spectroscopy had been performed by dispersing the light emitted by excited matter, or by dispersing the light transmitted by an absorber. Alternatively, if one has available a tunable monochromatic source (such as certain lasers), a spectrum can be measured one wavelength at a time by measuring light intensity (fluorescence or transmission) as a function of the wavelength of the tunable source.
In either case, physically important structures in such spectra are often obscured by the Doppler broadening of spectral lines that comes from the thermal motion of atoms in the matter. In this experiment you will make use of an elegant technique known as Doppler-free saturated absorption spectroscopy that circumvents the problem of Doppler broadening. The primary experimental objective will be to use this technique to measure the hyperfine splittings in the S1/2 and P1/2 it about lasers in general and diode lasers in particular.
Doppler-Free Laser Spectroscopy Lab Guide (PDF)
Feld, M. S., and V. S. Letokhov. “Laser Spectroscopy (PDF).” Scientific American 229 (Dec. 1973): 69-85.
Letokhov, V. S. “Saturation Spectroscopy.” Chapter 4 in Topics in Applied Physics, Edited by K. Shimoda. Berlin: Springer, 1976, pp. 95-171.
Letokhov, V. S., and V. P. Chebotayev. Nonlinear Laser Spectroscopy. Vol. 4, Springer Series in Optical Sciences. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1977, pp. 1-35. ISBN: 9780387080444.
Woodgate, G. K. “Hyperfine Structure and Isotope Shift.” Chapter 9 in Elementary Atomic Structure. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, pp. 168-187. ISBN: 9780198511564.
Pappas, P. G., et al. “Saturation Spectroscopy with Laser Optical Pumping in Atomic Barium.” The Physical Review 21A, no. 6 (1980): 1955-1968.
Aminoff, C. and M. Pinard. “Velocity Selective Optical Pumping.” J Physique 43 (1982): 263-277.
Nakayama, S. “Theoretical Analysis of Rb and Cs D2 Lines in Saturation Spectroscopy with Optical Pumping: Part I.” Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 23, no. 7 (1984): 879-883.
———. “Theoretical Analysis of Rb and Cs D2 Lines in Doppler-Free Spectroscopic Techniques with Optical Pumping: Part II.” Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 24, no. 1 (1985): 1-7.
———. “Velocity Selective Optical Pumping Spectroscopy of D1 Lines in Alkali Atoms.” Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 53 (1984): 3351-3361.
Camparo, J. C. “The Diode Laser in Atomic Physics.” Contemporary Physics 26, no. 5 (1985): 443-477.
Brandenberger, J. R. “Hyperfine Splittings in 4p5 5p Configuration of (83)Kr using Saturated Absorption Laser Spectroscopy.” The Physical Review A 39, no. 1 (January 1989): 64-68.
Wieman, C. E., and L. Hollberg. “Using Diode Lasers for Atomic Physics.” The Review of Scientific Instruments 62, no. 1 (1991): 1-20.
MacAdam, K. B., A. Steinbach, and C. Wieman. “A Narrow‐band Tunable Diode Laser System with Grating Feedback, and a Saturated Absorption Spectrometer for Cs and Rb.” American Journal of Physics 60, no. 12 (1992): 1098-1111.
Steck, D. “Rubidium 87 D Line Data (PDF).” Los Alamos Theoretical Division (T-8). September 2001.
Johnson noise and shot noise experiment equipment.
In electronic measurements, one observes “signals,” which must be distinctly above the “noise.” Noise induced from outside sources may be reduced by shielding and proper “grounding.” Less noise means greater sensitivity with signal/noise as the figure of merit. However, there exist fundamental sources of noise which no clever circuit can avoid. The intrinsic noise is a result of the thermal jitter of the charge carriers and the quantization of charge. The purpose of this experiment is to measure these two limiting electrical noises. From the measurements, values of the Boltzmann constant and the charge of the electron will be derived.
Johnson Noise and Shot Noise Lab Guide (PDF)
Johnson, John B. “Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors.” The Physical Review 32, no. 1 (1928): 97-109.
Nyquist, Harry. “Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors.” The Physical Review 32, no. 1 (1928): 110-113.
Reif, Frederick. “Fourier Analysis of Random Fluctuations.” Section 15.13-15 in Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1965, pp. 582-587.
Van der Ziel, Aldert. “Noise Figure,” and “Friiss’ Formula-Noise Measure.” Sections 3.2 and 3.3 in Noise in Measurement. New York, NY: Wiley, 1976, pp. 30-38. ISBN: 9780471898955.
Kittel, Peter. “Comment on the Equivalent Noise Bandwidth Approximation.” The Review of Scientific Instruments 48, no. 9 (1977): 1214-1215.
Kittel, Peter, W. R. Hackleman, and R. J. Donnelly. “Undergraduate Experiment on Noise Thermometry.” American Journal of Physics 46, no. 1 (1978): 94-100.
The objective of this experiment is to demonstrate the interference pattern obtained from combining coherent monochromatic light beams using a Michelson interferometer setup. You will ultimately derive the wavelength of the light source from your measured interference pattern.
Michelson interferometer and oscilloscope.
Michelson Interferometer Lab Guide (PDF)
Abbott, B.P. et al., “LIGO: the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory.” Rep. Prog. Phys. 72 076901 (2009).
Michelson, A.A. and E.W. Morley, “On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether (PDF).” American Journal of Science 34, 333 (1887).
Section 9.4 in Hecht, Eugene. Optics. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1998. ISBN: 9780201838879.
Mössbauer spectroscopy experiment equipment.
The Mössbauer effect and some of its applications in ultra-high resolution, E/ΔE ~ 1012, gamma-ray spectroscopy are explored. The Zeeman splittings, quadrupole splittings, and chemical shifts of the 14 keV Mössbauer gamma-ray line emitted in the recoilless decay of the first excited state of the 57Fe nucleus are measured in iron and in various iron compounds and alloys.
From the data and knowledge of the magnetic moment of the 57Fe ground state one determines the magnetic moment of the first excited state, and the strengths of the magnetic field at the sites of the iron nuclei in metallic iron, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4 .
The natural line widths of the 14 keV transitions are determined from measurements of the absorption line profiles in sodium ferrocyanide absorbers of various thicknesses. Relativistic time dilation is demonstrated by a measurement of the temperature coefficient of the energy of the 14 keV absorption lines in enriched iron.
Mössbauer Spectroscopy Lab Guide (PDF - 1MB)
De Benedetti, S. “The Mössbauer Effect.” Scientific American (April 1960): 72-80.
De Benedetti, S., G. Lang, and R. Ingalls. “Electric Quadrupole Splitting and Nuclear Volume Effect in the Ion of 57Fe.” Physical Review Letters 6, no. 4 (1961): 60-62.
Ruby, S. L., L. M. Epstein, and K. H. Sun. “Mössbauer Effect in Ferrocyanide.” Review of Scientific Instruments 31 (1960): 580.
Hofstadter, Robert. Nobel Prize Lecture, “The Electron-scattering Method and its Application to the Structure of Nuclei and Nucleons.” (1961).
Mössbauer, Rudolph Ludwig. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Recoilless Nuclear Resonance Absorption of Gamma Radiation.” (1961).
Boyle, A. J. F., and H. E. Hall. “The Mössbauer Effect.” Reports on the Progress of Physics 25, no. 1 (1962): 441-524.
Frauenfelder, Hans. The Mössbauer Effect: A Review with a Collection of Reprints. New York, NY: W. A. Benjamin, Inc., 1962.
Kistner, O. C., and A. W. Sunyar. “Evidence for Quadrupole Interaction of Fe57 and Influence of Chemical Binding on Nuclear Gamma-Ray Energy.” The Physical Review Letters 4, no. 8 (1960): 412-415. (Note: Better copy than the one in Frauenfelder.)
Preston, R. S., S. S. Hanna, and J. Heberle. “Mössbauer Effect in Metallic Iron.” The Physical Review 128, no. 5 (1962): 2207-2218.
King, J., ed. Mössbauer Effect: Selected Reprints. New York: American Institute of Physics for the American Association of Physics Teachers, 1963.
Optical Emission Spectra experiment equipment.
This experiment is an exercise in optical spectroscopy and a study of the spectra of hydrogenic atoms: atoms with one “optical” electron outside a closed shell of other electrons. A high-resolution scanning monochromator is used to study the Balmer lines of hydrogen and the more complex hydrogenic spectrum of sodium, using the mercury spectrum as the wavelength calibrator. The measured Balmer wavelengths are compared with the wavelengths predicted by the quantum theory of the hydrogen spectrum, and a value of the Rydberg is derived. The transitions responsible for the sodium spectrum are identified, and regularities in the fine structure and adherence to selection rules are observed. A measurement of the isotope shift between the Balmer lines of hydrogen and deuterium is made from which the ratio of the deuteron mass to the proton mass is derived.
Optical Emission Spectra of Hydrogenic Atoms Lab Guide (PDF)
Bohr, Niels. Nobel Prize Lecture, “The Structure of the Atom.” (1922).
Lamb, Willis E. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom.” (1955).
White, Harvey E. “Hydrogen Fine Structure and the Dirac Electron.” In Introduction to Atomic Spectra. 1st ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1934, pp. 132-138. ISBN: 9780070697201.
Richtmyer, F. K., E. H. Kennard, and T. Lauritsen. “Multiplet Levels for One-electron Atoms.” In Introduction to Modern Physics. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1955, pp. 258-266.
Eisberg, Robert M., and Robert Resnick. “Spin-Orbit Interaction Energy and the Hydrogen Energy Levels.” In Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles. New York, NY: Wiley, 1974, pp. 284-295. ISBN: 9780471234647.
Hansch, Theodor W., Arthur L. Schawlow, and George W. Series. “The Spectrum of Atomic Hydrogen.” Scientific American (March 1979): 94-110.
Lamb, Willis E. “Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method.” The Physical Review 72, no. 3 (1947): 241-243.
———. “Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom Part I.” The Physical Review 79, no. 4 (1950): 549-572.
———. “Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom Part II.” The Physical Review 81, no. 3 (1951): 222-232.
Hansch, Theodor W., et al. “Precision Measurement of the Rydberg Constant by Laser Saturation Spectroscopy of the Balmer Alpha Line in Hydrogen and Deuterium.” The Physical Review Letters 32, no. 24 (1974): 1336-1340.
Mohr, Peter J. “Lamb Shift in a Strong Coulomb Potential.” The Physical Review Letters 34, no. 16 (1975): 1050-1052.
Lee, S. A., R. Wallenstein, and T. W. Hansch. “Hydrogen 1S-2S Isotope Shift and 1S Lamb Shift Measured by Laser Spectroscopy.” The Physical Review Letters 24, no. 19 (1975): 1262-1266.
HORIBA Scientific Tutorial on Optics and Spectroscopy
Hyperphysics Tutorial on Broadening of Spectral Lines
Optical Pumping experiment equipment.
Rubidium vapor in a weak (~.01-10 gauss) magnetic field controlled with Helmholtz coils is pumped with circularly polarized D1 light from a rubidium rf discharge lamp. The degree of magnetization of the vapor is inferred from a differential measurement of its opacity to the pumping radiation.
In the first part of the experiment the energy separation between the magnetic substates of the ground-state hyperfine levels is determined as a function of the magnetic field from measurements of the frequencies of rf photons that cause depolarization and consequent greater opacity of the vapor. The magnetic moments of the ground states of the _85_Rb and _87_Rb isotopes are derived from the data and compared with the vector model for addition of electronic and nuclear angular momenta.
In the second part of the experiment the direction of magnetization is alternated between nearly parallel and nearly antiparallel to the optic axis, and the effects of the speed of reversal on the amplitude of the opacity signal are observed and compared with a computer model. The time constant of the pumping action is measured as a function of the intensity of the pumping light, and the results are compared with a theory of competing rate processes - pumping versus collisional depolarization.
Optical Pumping of Rubidium Vapor Lab Guide (PDF)
Bell, William E., and Arnold L. Bloom. “Optical Detection of Magnetic Resonance in Alkali Metal Vapor.” The Physical Review 107, no. 6 (1957): 1559-1565.
Bloom, Arnold. “Optical Pumping (PDF).” Scientific American (October 1960).
De Zafra, R. L. “Optical Pumping.” American Journal of Physics 28 (1960): 646.
Bernheim, Robert. Optical Pumping - An Introduction. New York, NY: W.A. Benjamin, 1965.
Benumof, R. “Optical Pumping Theory and Experiment.” American Journal of Physics 33 (1965): 151-160.
Nagel, M., and F. E. Haworth. “Advanced Laboratory Experiments on Optical Pumping of Rubidium Atoms—Part I: Magnetic Resonance.” American Journal of Physics 34 (1966): 553-558.
Kukolich, S. G. “Time Dependent of Quantum-State Amplitudes Demonstrated by Free Precession of Spins.” American Journal of Physics 36 (1968).
Richtmyer, Floyd K., E. H. Kennard, and John N. Cooper. “Atomic Structure and Optical Spectra.” In Introduction to Modern Physics. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1969, pp. 269-305. ISBN: 9780070525061.
Semat, Henry, and John Albright. “Optical Spectra and Electronic Structure.” Chapter 9 in Introduction to Atomic and Nuclear Physics. 5th ed. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972, pp. 256-300. ISBN: 9780030854026.
Evans, Robley D. “Atomic and Molecular Effects of Nuclear Moment Parity, and Statistics.” Chapter 5 in The Atomic Nucleus. Malabar, FL: R. E. Krieger, 1982, c1955, pp. 181-187. ISBN: 9780898744149.
Bell, William E., Arnold Bloom, and James Lynch. “Alkali Metal Vapor Spectral Lamps.” Review of Scientific Instruments 32 (1961): 688-692.
Brewer, Richard G. “High Intensity Low Noise Rubidium Light Source.” Review of Scientific Instruments 32 (1961): 1356-1358.
Shernoff, Donald I. “Mercury Lamp for Optical Pumping.” Review of Scientific Instruments 40 (1969): 1418-1419.
An optical trap or “optical tweezers” is a device used to apply piconewton-sized forces on micron-sized objects under a microscope using a highly focused light beam. It can be created by applying a precisely focused laser onto a dielectric material. It allows very detailed manipulations and measurements on several interesting systems in the fields of molecular and cell biology and thus acts as a major tool in biophysics. They are used in biological experiments ranging from cell sorting to the unzipping of DNA. Similar principles are also used in physical applications such as atom cooling. In this experiment, you will measure the Brownian motion of a silica microsphere in aqueous solution, both testing the theory of statistical mechanics and calibrating the “spring constant” of the trap. Then, using the calibrated trap, you will measure forces in biological systems, such as the actin-myosin molecular motors of vesicle transport in onion cells, the E. coli flagellar motor, or the restoring force of a stretched DNA molecule.
Optical trapping experiment equipment.
Photoelectric effect experiment equipment. (Image courtesy of MIT Junior Lab staff.)
The maximum kinetic energy of electrons ejected from a metal surface by monochromatic light is measured for several wavelengths. The value of Planck’s constant, h, is derived by an analysis of the data in the light of Einstein theory of the photoelectric effect.
Photoelectric Effect Lab Guide (PDF)
Planck, Max. Nobel Prize Lecture, “The Genesis and Present State of Development of the Quantum Theory.” (1918).
Einstein, Albert. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity.” (1921).
Millikan, R.A. “A Direct Photoelectric Determination of Planck’s ‘h’.” Phys. Rev., 7, 355 (1916).
Hughes, Arthur L., and Lee A. Du Bridge. Photoelectric Phenomena. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, (1932).
Discusses phenomena such as the velocity distribution of the electrons, effects of polarization and angle of incidence of the light, influence of the surface temperature, photoelectric behavior of thin films and composite materials, etc.
Harnwell, G. P., and Livingood, J. J. “Thermionic and Photoelectric Effects.” In Experimental Atomic Physics. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 1933, pp. 214-223. ISBN: 9780070266605.
Melissinos, Adrian C. “Photoelectric Effect.” In Experiments in Modern Physics. New York, NY: Academic Press, (1968).
Baumeister, P. and G. Pincus. “Optical Interference Coatings.” Scientific American 223, 58-75 (December 1970).
Distributions in numbers of counts for random events at fixed mean counts of approximately 1, 10, and 100 are measured with a scintillation counter exposed to a weak source of gamma rays. The results are compared to the theoretical Poisson distributions for the measured means, and with the results of Monte Carlo simulations of Poisson distributions based on the use of a random number generator on a PC.
Poisson statistics experiment equipment.
Poisson Statistics Lab Guide (PDF)
HyperPhysics Applied Statistics Overview
Note: .m files are used in the lab experiment.
Spin echoes experiment equipment.
Magnetic resonances of protons in various substances are studied by the techniques of pulsed NMR and the measurement of spin echoes. Various substances containing protons (water, glycerine, etc.) are placed in a uniform magnetic field and subjected to pulses of a transverse 7.5 MHz radio frequency magnetic field in near resonance with the Larmor precession frequency of the protons.
The spin-lattice and spin-spin relaxation time constants are determined from measurements of the free-induction signals and the spin echoes produced by various combinations of rf pulses. Temperature effects are observed in glycerine, and the effects of paramagnetic ions on the relaxation time constants in water are measured. The magnetic moments of the proton and of the fluorine nucleus are derived from the data.
Pulsed Nuclear Magnetic Resonance: Spin Echoes Lab Guide (PDF)
Bloch, F. “Nuclear Induction.” The Physical Review 70, no. 7-8 (1946): 460-474.
One of the original papers on magnetic resonance of condensed matter. The majority of current NMR experiments are induction experiments as described by Bloch.
Bloembergen, N., E. M. Purcell, and R. V. Pound. “Relaxation Effects in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Absorption.” The Physical Review 73, no. 7 (1948): 679-712.
The ‘other’ original paper. Although the actual method used—resonance absorption—is not used very much anymore in NMR, this paper has many valuable discussions, especially on relaxation times.
Hahn, E. L. “Spin Echos.” The Physical Review 80, no. 4 (1950): 580-594.
The original spin-echo paper. Besides the ‘ordinary’ echos discussed in great detail, this paper has a thorough description of stimulated echoes which were only sporadically used for the following two decades.
———. “Free Nuclear Induction.” Physics Today 6 (November 1953): 4-9.
A ‘popular’ description of what we now call Hahn echoes. The cover of this particular issue of the journal had the now famous illustration of the racetrack analogy to the spin echoes.
Carr, H. Y., and E. M. Purcell. “Effects of Diffusion on Free Precession in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.” The Physical Review 94, no. 3 (1954): 630-638.
The original paper of what we now call the Carr-Purcell echo sequence. Another paper with a wealth of information (such as even-echo rephasing).
Meiboom, S., and D. Gill. “Modified Spin-Echo Method for Measuring Nuclear Relaxation Times.” The Review of Scientific Instruments 29, no. 8 (1958): 688-691.
A short paper with a major modification of the Carr-Purcell sequence. Without such a modification, it is not possible to generate a long train of echoes. This is an early application of a complex multiple-pulse sequence with phase shifts which have become routine.
Melissinos, A. “Magnetic Resonance Experiments.” In Chapter 8 of Techniques in Experimental Physics. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1966, pp. 340-361.
Ernst, R. R., and W. A. Anderson. “Application of Fourier Transform Spectroscopy to Magnetic Resonance.” The Review of Scientific Instruments 37, no. 1 (1966): 93-102.
Here is a general description of how to design and build fast recovery NMR probes and receiving circuits. The quarter-wave line duplexer that is described is still a common way to decouple the receiver and the transmitter from the probe during transmission and reception, respectively.
Stern, Otto. Nobel Prize Lecture, “The Method of Molecular Rays.” (1943).
Pake, George E. “Fundamentals of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Absorption. I” American Journal of Physics 18, no. 8 (1950): 438-452.
———. “Fundamentals of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Absorption. II” American Journal of Physics 18, no. 8 (1950): 473-486.
———. “Radiofrequency and Microwave Spectroscopy of Nuclei.” Annu Rev Nucl Sci 4 (1954): 33-50.
Bloch, Felix. Nobel Prize Lecture, “The Principle of Nuclear Induction.” (1952).
Purcell, Edward Mills. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Research in Nuclear Magnetism.” (1952).
Pound, R. V. “Nuclear Paramagnetic Resonance.” Progr Nuclear Phys 2, no. 21 (1952): 21-50.
Bloembergen, N. Nuclear Magnetic Relaxation: A Reprint Volume. New York, NY: W. A. Benjamin, 1961.
Feynman, Richard P., Robert B. Leighton, and Matthew Sands. “Nuclear Magnetic Resonance.” In The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. II. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1963, Section 35-10 to 35-12. ISBN: 9780201020106.
Harris, Robin K., and Brian E. Mann. “The Measurement of Relaxation Times.” NMR and the Periodic Table. London, UK: Academic Press, 1979, pp. 41-48. ISBN: 9780123276506.
Derome, A. E. “Describing Pulse NMR.” Modern NMR Techniques for Chemistry Research. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press, 1987, pp. 85-95. ISBN: 9780080325132.
Farrar, T. C. Introduction to Pulse NMR Spectroscopy. Madison, WI: Farragut, 1987, chapters 1-2, and 4, pp. 1-54, 81-95. ISBN: 9780917903045.
Freeman, Ray. “Spin Lattice Relaxation.” A Handbook of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1988, pp. 251-258. ISBN: 9780582005747.
A Pulse NMR experiment for an undergraduate physics laboratory (PDF)
Quantum information processing experiment equipment.
This experiment will let you perform a series of simple quantum computations on a two spin system, demonstrating one and two quantum-bit quantum logic gates, and a circuit implementing the Deutsch-Jozsa quantum algorithm. You will use NMR techniques and manipulate the state of a proton and a carbon nucleus in a chloroform molecule, measuring ensemble nuclear magnetization.
WARNING: You should know MATLAB® well to successfully do this experiment! You will measure:
Quantum Information Processing with NMR Lab Guide (PDF)
Landauer, R. “Irreversibility and Heat Generation in the Computing Process.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 183 (1961): 183-191.
Bennett, C. H. “Logical Reversibility of Computation.” IBM Journal of Research and Development 525 (1973): 525-532.
Benioff, P. “The Computer as a Physical System: A Microscopic Quantum Mechanical Hamiltonian Model of Computers as Represented by Turing Machines.” Journal of Statistical Physics 22 (1980): 563-591.
Feynman, R. P. “Simulating Physics with Computers.” International Journal of Theoretical Physics 21 (1982): 467-488.
Fredkin, E., and T. Toffoli. “Conservative Logic.” International Journal of Theoretical Physics 21 (1982): 219-253.
Feynman, R. P. “Quantum Mechanical Computers.” Optics News 11 (1985): 11-20.
Deutsch, David. “Quantum Theory, the Church-Turing Principle and the Universal Quantum Computer.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A400 (1985): 97-117.
———. “Quantum Computational Networks.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A425 (1989): 73-90.
Leff, H., and R. Rex. Maxwell’s Demon: Entropy, Information, Computing. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991. ISBN: 9780691087276.
Deutsch, David, and Richard Jozsa. “Rapid Solution of Problems by Quantum Computation.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A439 (1992): 553-558.
Shor, P. W. “Algorithms for Quantum Computation: Discrete Logarithms and Factoring.” Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science 35 (1994): 124-134.
Simon, D. R. “On the Power of Quantum Computation”. Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science 35 (1994): 116-123.
Grover, L. “A Fast Quantum Mechanical Algorithm for Database Search.” Proceedings of the 28th Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing (1996): 212-219.
Gershenfeld, N., and I. Chuang. “Bulk Spin-Resonance Quantum Computation.” Science 275 (1997): 350-356.
Cory, D., A. Fahmy, and T. Havel. “Ensemble Quantum Computing by NMR Spectroscopy.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94 (1997): 1634-1639.
Warren S. W., N. Gershenfeld, and I. Chuang. “The Usefulness of NMR Quantum Computing”. Science. 277, no. 5332 (1997): 1688-1690.
Chuang, Isaac L., Neil Gershenfeld, and M. Kubinec. “Experimental Implementation of Fast Quantum Searching.” The Physical Review Letters 80, no. 15 (April 13, 1998): 3408-3411.
Chuang, Isaac L., L. M. K. Vandersypen, X. L. Zhou, D. W. Leung, and S. Lloyd. “Experimental Realization of a Quantum Algorithm.” Nature 393, no. 6681 (1998): 143-146.
Gershenfeld, Neil, and Isaac Chuang. “Quantum Computing with Molecules (PDF).” Scientific American (June 1998): 66-73.
Sodickson, A., and D. G. Cory. “A Generalized k-space Formalism for Treating the Spatial Aspects of a Variety of NMR Experiments.” Progress in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 33 (1998): 77-108.
Price, M., S. Somaroo, C. Tseng, J. Gore, A. Fahmy, T. Havel, and D. Cory. “Construction and Implementation of NMR Quantum Logic Gates for Two Spin System (PDF).” Journal of Magnetic Resonance 140 (1999): 371-378.
Cory, D., R. LaFlamme, E. Knill, L. Viola, T. Havel, N. Boulant, G. Boutis, E. Fortunato, S. Lloyd, R. Martinez, C. Negrevergne, M. Pravia, Y. Sharf., G. Teklemariam, Y. Weinstein and W. Zurek. “NMR Based Quantum Information Processing: Achievements and Prospects.” Quantum Physics 48 (2000): 875-907.
Chuang, Isaac L., and Michael A. Nielsen. Quantum Computation and Quantum Information. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, November 2000, chapter 1. ISBN: 9780521632355.
Vandersypen, L., C. Yannoni and I. Chuang. “Liquid State NMR Quantum Computing.” The Encyclopedia of NMR, Edited by D. Grant and R. Harris, John Wiley and Sons (2001).
Havel, T. F., D. G. Cory, S. Lloyd, N. Boulant, E. M. Fortunato, M. A. Pravia, G. Teklemariam, Y. S. Weinstein, A. Bhattacharyya, and J. Hou. “Quantum Information Processing by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy.” American Journal of Physics 70 (March 2002): 345-362.
Chuang, I.L. “How Proton and Carbon Spectra Arise from Density Matrix (PDF)”, April 2003.
Gulde, S., M. Riebe, G. Lancaster, C. Becher, J. Eschner, H. Haffner, F. Schmidt-Kaler, I. Chuang and R. Blatt. “Implementation of the Deutsch-Jozsa Algorithm on an Ion-trop Quantum Computer.” Nature 421 (January 2, 2003): 48-50.
Sakurai, J. “Ensemble Averages and Density Operator.” In Modern Quantum Mechanics. 2nd ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1993, pp. 176-180. ISBN: 9780201539295.
Raman spectroscopy uses the inelastic scattering of monochromatic light to probe molecular structure. In Raman scattering, the frequency of the scattered light is shifted from the frequency of the incident beam. The rotational and vibrational energy levels of the molecule in question determine the magnitude of the frequency shift. In this experiment, you will use a high powered laser scattered off of a gaseous sample to find the rotational constants of the molecules.
Raman spectrum experiment equipment.
Greytak, T. “Indistinguishable Particle Effects in Rotational Raman Scattering (PDF).” MIT course 8.044 Statistical Physics I on MIT OpenCourseWare.
Zhou, H. and F. Machado, “Raman Spectroscopy on Diatomic Molecules (PDF).” Junior Lab Exploratory Project Proposal 2015.
Ferraro, J., K. Nakamoto, and C. Brown, Introductory Raman Spectroscopy. Amsterdam: Academic Press, 2002. ISBN: 9780122541056.
Weber, A. Raman Spectroscopy of Gases and Liquids (Topics in Current Physics). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1979.
Edwards, D. F. and C. Y. She, “Laser Excited Raman Spectroscopy.” American Journal of Physics 40 (1972): 1389-1399.
Relativistic dynamics experiment equipment.
This experiment is a study of the relations between energy, momentum and velocity of relativistic electrons. Energetic electrons from the beta decay of 90Sr and its decay product 90Y are sorted according to momentum by a 180 degree magnetic spectrograph, passed through a velocity selector, and detected by a PIN diode detector.
Plots of momentum and energy vs. velocity are compared with the theoretical relations of classical and relativistic dynamics, and the value of the ratio e/m is derived from the data.
Relativistic Dynamics Lab Guide (PDF)
Thomson, J. J. “Cathode Rays.” Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 44 (1897): 77-100.
Emilio, Segre. “Radioactive Decay.” In Experimental Nuclear Physics. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Wiley, 1953, pp. 1-39.
———. “Passage of Heavy Particles through Matter.” Section 2.1B-D in Experimental Nuclear Physics. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Wiley, 1953, pp. 231-252.
Evans, Robley Dunglison. “Beta-Ray Spectra.” Chapter 17 in The Atomic Nucleus. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1955, pp. 536-566.
Bleuler, Ernst, and George J. Goldsmith. “Range and Energy Loss of Alpha Particles,” and “Radiations of Cu(64) (Zn(65)).” Experiment 19 and 23 in Experimental Nucleonics. New York, NY: Rinehart, 1952, pp. 275-282 and 3341-354.
Ritson, David M., “General Properties of Particles and Radiation.” Chapter 1 in Techniques of High Energy Physics. New York, NY: Interscience Publishers, 1961, pp. 1-53.
England, J. B. A. “Magnetic Spectrometers for Beta Particles and Electrons.” Section 4.2 in Techniques in Nuclear Structure Physics. Vol. 2. New York, NY: Wiley, 1974, pp. 349-383. ISBN: 9780470241615.
Evans, Robley Dunglison. “Statistical Fluctuations in Nuclear Processes.” Chapter 26 in The Atomic Nucleus. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1955, pp. 746-772.
Stopping Power and Range Tables for Electrons
Clark, J. W. “A New Method for Obtaining a Uniform Magnetic Field.” Rev Sci Inst 9 (1938): 320-322.
Purcell, Edward M. “Electric Conduction in a Magnetic Field: The Hall Effect.” Section 6.9 in Electricity and Magnetism. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1984, pp. 241-245. ISBN: 9780070049086.
———. “Exact Relations Among SI and CGS Units.” Appendix E in Electricity and Magnetism. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1984, pp. 473-475. ISBN: 9780070049086.
Rutherford scattering experiment equipment.
This is an experiment which studies scattering alpha particles on atomic nuclei. Nearly monoenergetic alpha particles (He nuclei) in a collimated beam from an source are scattered from thin foils of gold or titanium, and the intensities of the scattered alpha particles are measured with a silicon barrier detector at various scattering angles.
The energies of the incident alpha particles can be reduced by placing a gold foil in the beam. The differential scattering cross section of the target atoms is measured as a function of the angle of scattering, the energy of the particles, and the nuclear charge of the target atoms. The results are compared with the Rutherford theory of scattering by atomic nuclei.
Rutherford Scattering Lab Guide (PDF)
Rutherford, Ernest. “The Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom.” Philosophical Magazine 21 (1911): 669-688. Sixth Series.
Geiger, H. “The Scattering of the Alpha-Particles by Matter.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 83, no. 565 (1910): 492-504.
Eisberg, Robert M. “The Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus.” In Fundamentals of Modern Physics. New York, NY: Wiley, 1963, pp. 87-109.
Melissinos, Adrian C. “Solid-State Particle Detectors.” In Experiments in Modern Physics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1966, pp. 208-217.
———. “Rutherford Scattering.” In Experiments in Modern Physics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1966, pp. 226-252.
Segre, Emilio. “The Passage of Radiations through Matter.” Chapter 2 in Nuclei and Particles. 2nd ed. Reading, MA: W. A. Benjamin, 1977, pp. 17-36. ISBN: 9780805386011.
Gasiorowiez, S. “The Born Approximation.” In Quantum Physics. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2003, pp. 302-305. ISBN: 9780471429456.
———. “The Absorption of Radiation in Matter.” In Quantum Physics. 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2003, pp. 416-419. ISBN: 9780471429456.
Superconductivity experiment equipment.
Several phenomena associated with superconductivity are observed in three experiments carried out in a liquid helium cryostat. The transition to the superconducting state of each of several bulk samples of Type I and II superconductors is observed in measurements of the exclusion of magnetic field (the Meisner effect) from samples as the temperature is gradually reduced by the flow of cold gas from boiling helium. The persistence of a current induced in a superconducting cylinder of lead is demonstrated by measurements of its magnetic field over a period of a day. The tunneling of Cooper pairs through an insulating junction between two superconductors (the DC Josephson effect) is demonstrated, and the magnitude of the fluxoid is measured by observation of the effect of a magnetic field on the Josephson current.
Superconductivity Lab Guide (PDF)
London, F., and H. London. “The Electromagnetic Equations of the Superconductor.” Reprinted from Proceedings of the Royal Society London A149 (1935): 71-88.
Bommel, H. E. “Ultrasonic Attenuation in Superconducting Lead.” The Physical Review 96, no. 1 (October 1954): 79-81.
Corak, W. S., B. B. Goodman, C. B. Satterwaite, and A. Wexler. “Atomic Heats of Normal and Superconducting Vanadium.” The Physical Review 102, no. 3 (May 1956): 43-48.
Bardeen, J., L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer. “Theory of Superconductivity.” The Physical Review 108, no. 5 (1957): 1175-1204.
Crowe, J. W. “Trapped-Flux Superconducting Memory.” Reprinted from IBM Journal of Research and Development 1 (1957): 295-303.
Cooper, Leon N. “Theory of Superconductivity.” American Journal of Physics 28, no. 2 (February 1960): 91-101.
Knuzler, J. E., E. Buehler, F. S. L. Hsu, and J. H. Wernick. “Superconductivity in Nb3Sn at High Current Density in a Magnetic Field of 88 kgauss.” The Physical Review Letters 6, no.3 (1961): 89-91.
Landau, Lev Davidovic. “Nobel Prize.” (1962). (For his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium.)
Ginsberg, D. M. “Resource Letter Scy-1 on Superconductivity.” American Journal of Physics 32, no. 2 (February 1964): 1-5.
American Association of Physics Teachers. Superconductivity: Selected Reprints. New York: Published for the American Association of Physics Teachers by the American Institute of Physics, 1964.
Feynman, Richard P. “A Seminar on Superconductivity.” Chapter 21 in Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. III. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1965. ISBN:9780201020106.
Parks, R. D. “Quantum Effects in Superconductors (PDF).” Scientific American 213, no. 4 (October 1965): 57-67.
Bardeen, John. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Electron-Phonon Interactions and Superconductivity.” (1972).
Cooper, Leon N. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Microscopic Quantum Interference Effects in the Theory of Superconductivity.” (1972).
Schrieffer, J. Robert. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Macroscopic Quantum Phenomena from Pairing in Superconductors.” (1972).
Bardeen, J. “Electron-phonon Interactions and Superconductivity.” Physics Today 26 (1973): 41-46.
Esaki, Leo. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Long Journey into Tunnelling.” (1973).
Giaever, Ivar. Nobel Prize Lecture, “Electron Tunneling and Superconductivity.” (1973).
Josephson, Brian D. Nobel Prize Lecture, “The Discovery of Tunnelling Supercurrents.” (1973).
Cooper, Leon N. “Microscopic Quantum Interference in the Theory of Superconductivity.” Physics Today 26 (July 1973): 31-39.
Schrieffer, J. R. “Macroscopic Quantum Phenomena from Pairing in Superconductors.” Physics Today 26 (July 1973): 23-28.
Tinkham, Michael. Introduction to Superconductivity. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1975, 151 pages. ISBN: 9780070648777.
Bednorz, Johannes Georg, and Karl Alexander Müller. “Possible High Tc Superconductivity in the Ba-La-Cu-O System.” Condensed Matter, Zeitschrift Für Physik B. 64, no. 2 (1986) 189-193.
Josephson, B. D. “Coupled Superconductors.” Reviews of Modern Physics 36, no. 1 (1963): 216-220.
Langenberg, D. N., D. J. Scalapino, and B. N. Taylor. “The Josephson Effects (PDF).” Scientific American 214, no. 5 (May 1966): 30-39.
Richards, P. L., S. Shapiro, and C. C. Grimes. “Student Laboratory Demonstration of Flux Quantization and the Josephson Effect in Superconductors.” American Journal of Physics 36, no. 8 (August 1968): 690-697.
Clarke, J. “The Josephson Effect and e/h.” American Journal of Physics 38, no. 9 (September 1970): 1071-1092.
Scalapino, D. J. “Josephson Effects.” [1970] In Encyclopedia of Physics. Edited by Rita G. Lerner and George L. Trigg. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1981, pp. 479-481. ISBN: 9780201043136.
Bruynseraede, Y., C. Vlekken, and C. Van Haesendonck. “Giaever and Josephson Tunneling.” In Superconducting Electronics. NATO ASI Series. vol. F59_._ Springer-Verlag, 1989.
The Franck-Hertz experiment equipment.
These experiments measure two phenomena encountered in collisions between electrons and atoms: quantized excitation due to inelastic scattering, and ionization. The excitation potential and ionization potential of the mercury atom are determined from measurements of the critical accelerating potentials at which electrons lose energy by inelastic scattering in mercury vapor.
The Franck-Hertz Experiment Lab Guide (PDF)
Bohm, David. “Square Potential Solutions.” In Quantum Theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1951, pp. 229-263.
Bleuler, Ernst, and George J. Goldsmith. “Charged Particle Spectra.” In Experimental Nucleonics. New York, NY: Rinehart, 1952, pp. 342-346.
Melissinos, Adrian C. “The Franck-Hertz Experiment.” In Experiments in Modern Physics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1966, pp. 8-17.
———. “Thermionic Emissions of Electrons from Metals.” In Experiments in Modern Physics. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1966, pp. 65-80.
Schiff, Leonard I. “Ramsauer-Townsend Effect.” In Quantum Mechanics. 3rd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1968, pp. 108-110.
Harnwell, Gaylord P., and J. J. Livinwood. “Experiments on Excitation Potentials,” and “Experiments in Ionization Potentials.” In Experimental Atomic Physics. Huntington, NY: R. E. Krieger, 1978, pp. 314-320. ISBN: 9780882756004.
Rapior, G., K. Sengstock, and V. Baeva. “New Features of the Franck-Hertz Experiment.” American Journal of Physics 74 (2006): 423-428.
Bohm, David. “Ramsauer-Townsend.” In Quantum Theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1951, pp. 564-573.
Richtmyer, F. K., E. H. Kennard, and T. Lauritsen. Introduction to Modern Physics. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1955, pp. 274-279.
Mott, N. F., and H. S. W. Massey. “Ramsauer-Townsend.” In The Theory of Atomic Collisions. 3rd ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1965, pp. 562-579. ISBN: 9780198512424.
Kukolich, Stephen G. “Demonstration of the Ramsauer-Townsend Effect in a Xenon Thyratron.” American Journal of Physics 36, no. 8 (1968): 701-703.
Relativistic kinematics experiment equipment.
The purpose of this experiment is to demonstrate the existence of a speed limit on the motion of particles by measuring the speed of cosmic-ray muons, and to demonstrate the relativistic dilation of time by comparing the mean life of muons at rest and in high speed motion. The existence of an absolute limit, c, on the speed of particles is demonstrated by a measurement of the times of flight of cosmic-ray muons between scintillation counters in the laboratory. The mean life of muons at rest is then determined from a measurement of the distribution of radioactive decay times of muons that stop in a large plastic scintillator.
Given their measured short mean life, the measured speed limit, and the large distance they travel from their places of production high in the atmosphere, it is apparent that the muons in flight live much longer relative to an observer in the laboratory than muons at rest, in conformance with the predictions of relativistic kinematics.
The Speed and Mean Life of Cosmic-Ray Muons Lab Guide (PDF)
Rossi, Bruno. “Interpretation of Cosmic-Ray Phenomena.” Reviews of Modern Physics 20, no. 3 (1948): 537-583.
———. Chapters 1 through 8, plus Appendices, Bibliography and Index in High-Energy Particles. New York, NY: Prentice-Hall, 1952, pp. 1-569.
———. Cosmic Rays. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1964.
Frisch, D. H., and J. H. Smith. “Measurement of the Relativistic Time Dilation Using mu-Mesons.” American Journal of Physics 31 (1963): 342-355.
Hall, R. E., D. A. Lind, and R. A. Ristinen. “A Simplified Muon Lifetime Experiment for the Instructional Laboratory.” American Journal of Physics 38 (1970): 1196-1200.
Griffiths, David. Introduction to Elementary Particles. New York, NY: Wiley, 1987, chapter 1, pp. 1-51. ISBN: 9780471603863.
———. “Theory of Weak Interactions and Muon Decay.” Chapter 10 in Introduction to Elementary Particles. New York, NY: Wiley, 1987, pp. 301-309. ISBN: 9780471603863.
Perkins, Donald H. Introduction to High Energy Physics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 213. ISBN: 9780521621960.
A nice comparison positon spectra from muon (three body) and pion (two body decays).
Stanford Linear Accelerator High Energy Cosmic Rays: A very nice overview of current cosmic ray research by Prof. Todor Stanev.
A cooled intrinsic germanium solid-state X-ray detector.
This experiment investigates the production and absorption of x-rays. A cooled intrinsic germanium solid-state x-ray detector is used to measure the spectra of x-rays under a variety of circumstances that illustrate several of the important phenomena of x-ray physics. Phenomena observed and measured include the production of x-rays by fluorescent excitation, bremsstrahlung, and electron-positron annihilation and the absorption of x-rays by photoelectric interactions, Compton scattering, and pair production.
The energies of the K x-ray lines of numerous elements are measured and compared with the predictions of Moseley’s Law. The energy separations and relative intensities of the Ka and Kb lines are measured and compared with the theory of fine structure in the n=2 orbitals.
Moseley, H. G. J. “The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements, Part I.” Philosophical Magazine, no. 26 (1913): 1024.
———. “The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements, Part II.” Philosophical Magazine, no. 26 (1913): 1024.
Compton, Arthur H. “The Spectrum of Scattered X-Rays.” The Physical Review 22, no. 5 (November 1923): 409-413. Second Series.
Siegbahn, Karl Manne Georg. Nobel Prize Lecture, “The X-ray Spectra and the Structure of the Atoms.” (1924).
Compton, Arthur Holly. Nobel Prize Lecture, “X-rays as a Branch of Optics.” (1927).
Compton, Arthur H., and Samuel K. Allison. “The Interpretation of X-ray Spectra.” In X-Rays in Theory and Experiment. 2nd ed. New York, NY: D. Van Nostrand, 1935, pp. 590-595 and 647-655.
Bearden, J. A. “X-Ray Wavelengths.” Reviews of Modern Physics 39, no. 1 (1967): 78-124.
Way, K. “Atomic Data Related to X and XUV Radiation.” In Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables 22 (1978): 125-130.
Krause, M. O., and J. H. Oliver. “Natural Linewidths of Atomic K and L Levels, K-alpha X-Ray Lines.” Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 8, no. 2 (1979): 329-338.
