Looking for something specific in this course? The compiles links to most course resources in a single page.
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | origins of modern chemistry, taxonomy of chemical species, introduction to the periodic table, evolution of atomic theory |
| Keywords | matter, element, compound, mixture, solution, metal, semimetal, nonmetal, mole, symbol, molecular mass, substance, homogeneous mixture, heterogeneous mixture, periodic table of elements, Democritus, Aristotle, John Dalton, triads, octaves, Johann Dobereiner, John Newlands, Dmitri Mendeleev, Julius Meyer |
| Chemical Substances | none |
| Applications | energy generation and storage (e.g. batteries) |
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
Prof. Sadoway discusses the periodic table in more detail (Session 2). He explores the relationship between electronic structure, chemical bonding, and crystal structure (Session 4).
After completing this session, you should be able to:
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [Saylor] 1, “Introduction to Chemistry.” | Chemistry in the modern world; the scientific method; a description of matter; a brief history of chemistry; the atom; introduction to the periodic table; essential elements |
Periodic Table and Table of Constants
This lecture is an introduction to the class.
Professor Sadoway begins with important information about the course objectives, organization, and expectations, and proceeds to introduce the subject of solid state chemistry. 3.091 integrates thorough coverage of the principles of chemistry with various applications to engineering systems. The thesis of 3.091 is that electronic structure holds the key to understanding the world around us.
The lecture continues with a survey of the historical foundations of chemistry:
| [Saylor] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [Saylor] 1.3, “A Description of Matter.” | 6, 7, 9, 10 | none |
| [Saylor] 1.4, “A Brief History of Chemistry.” | 6 | none |
| [Saylor] 1.5, “The Atom.” | none | 1 |
| [Saylor] 1.6, “Isotopes and Atomic Masses.” | 1 | none |
| [Saylor] 1.7, “Introduction to the Periodic Table.” | 1, 4, 6, 10, 11 | none |
| [Saylor] 3.1, “The Mole and Molar Masses.” | none | 3, 8, 16, 17 |
Davies, D. A. Waves, Atoms and Solids. Harlow Essex, UK: Longman Group United Kingdom, 1978. ISBN: 9780582441743.
Brown, T. L., H. E. Lemay, and B. E. Bursten. Chemistry: The Central Science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999. ISBN: 9780130103109.
| Content | Provider | Level | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science | MIT OpenCourseWare | Undergraduate (first-year) | Lecture 1: The Importance of Chemical Principles |
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | classification schemes for the elements, periodic table, atomic structure, stoichiometry |
| Keywords | periodic table, matter, atom, John Dalton, compound, electron number, proton number, neutron number, electron, proton, neutron, electron charge, proton charge, elementary charge, wavelength, frequency, energy, superheavy, Dmitri Mendeleev, conservation of mass, bomb reactor, gas, liquid, solid, electronegativity, chemical reaction, chemical equation, chemical symbol, chemical formula, atomic mass, atomic mass unit, atomic weight, atomic number, neutral atom, ion, ionization energy, mass number, stoichiometry, mole, isotope, isotopic abundance, coulomb, degrees Kelvin, Jöns Berzelius, Amedeo Avogadro, Michael Faraday, quantized electric charge, Faraday’s constant, Robert Millikan, oil drop experiment, Avogadro’s number, Alexander Borodin |
| Chemical Substances | carbon (C), titanium (Ti), ekasilicon (Es), germanium (Ge) |
| Applications | Kroll process for producing titanium metal |
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
Prof. Sadoway describes Rutherford’s model of the atom and Bohr’s model of hydrogen (Session 3).
After completing this session, you should be able to:
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [Saylor] 1.6, “Isotopes and Atomic Masses.” | Isotopes and atomic masses |
| [Saylor] 1.7, “Introduction to the Periodic Table.” | Metals, nonmetals, and semimetals; chemistry of the groups |
| [Saylor] 3.1, “The Mole and Molar Masses.” | Molecular and formula masses; the mole; molar mass |
| [Saylor] 3.2, “Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas.” | Calculating mass percentages; determining the empirical formula of penicillin; combustion analysis; from empirical formula to molecular formula |
| [Saylor] 3.3, “Chemical Equations.” | Interpreting chemical equations; balancing simple chemical equations |
| [Saylor] 3.4, “Mass Relationships in Chemical Equations.” | Stoichiometry problems; limiting reactants; percent yields |
| [Saylor] 7.1, “The History of the Periodic Table.” (only read until “Mendeleev’s Periodic Table”) | Arrangements of elements before Mendeleev |
Periodic Table and Table of Constants
This lecture continues the discussion about origins of the periodic table, picking up with Dmitri Mendeleev’s discovery of periodic patterns among different groups of elements. At the high end of the periodic table are the superheavy elements; Prof. Sadoway discusses naming conventions and how these elements are discovered.
Elements are characterized by a range of properties. Starting with the fundamental structure of the atom and characteristics of the electron, proton, and neutron, Prof. Sadoway defines key terms such as:
The lecture includes a description of Robert Millikan’s oil drop experiment (1909), which measured the value of the elementary charge.
A chemical reaction can be described by an equation based on conservation of mass and Dalton’s law of molar proportions. Using the example of the Kroll process for producing titanium metal, Prof. Sadoway demonstrates how to write a balanced equation, employing stoichiometry to determine how much metal is produced from a given amount of reactants.
The lecture ends with a brief biographical sketch of composer and chemistry professor Alexander Borodin, a contemporary of Mendeleev.
| [Saylor] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [Saylor] 1.6, “Isotopes and Atomic Masses.” | 3, 5, 7 | 2, 5, 6, 14 |
| [Saylor] 3.3, “Chemical Equations.” | none | 2 |
| [Saylor] 3.4, “Mass Relationships in Chemical Equations.” | none | 12, 25 |
Emsley, J. The Elements. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN: 9780198558187.
Weeks, M. E. Discovery of the Elements. Madison, WI: Journal of Chemical Education, 1968.
Seaborg, Glenn T., and E.G. Valens. Elements of the Universe. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1958. ISBN: 9789999238939.
Strathern, P. Mendeleyev’s Dream: The Quest for the Elements. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press, 2001. ISBN: 9780140284140.
Gordin, M. A Well-Ordered Thing: Dmitrii Mendeleev and the Shadow of the Periodic Table. New York, NY: 2004. ISBN: 9780465027750.
Mendeleyev, Dmitri. The Principles of Chemistry. New York, NY: Longmans Green and Co., 1897.
Dalton, John. A New System of Chemical Philosophy. New York, NY: Philosophical Library, 1964.
Cardwell, D. John Dalton and the Progress of Science. New York, NY: Barnes and Noble, 1968.
Kargon, Robert H. The Rise of Robert Millikan: Portrait of a Life in American Science. New York, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982. ISBN: 9780801414596.
Millikan, Robert A. Electrons, Protons, Photons, Neutrons, Mesotrons, and Cosmic Rays. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1947.
Robert Millikan - 1923 Nobel Prize in Physics
Borodin, Alexander P. “Polovtsian Dances.” Prince Igor. Available as Ballet Music from Operas. Performed by New York Philharmonic, conducted by Leonard Bernstein. New York, NY: Sony, 1993.
Lehrer, T. The Remains of Tom Lehrer. Los Angeles, CA: Warner Archives/Rhino, 2000.
| Content | Provider | Level | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science | MIT OpenCourseWare | Undergraduate (first-year) | |
| Stoichiometry Tutorial | ChemCollective, CMU Open Learning Initiative | High school | |
| Atoms and Elements, The Periodic Table | HyperPhysics: Chemistry | High school |
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | Thomson’s plum pudding model, Rutherford’s model of the nucleus, Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom, Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden experiment, Planck-Einstein relationship, isotopes of hydrogen |
| Keywords | lanthanides, actinides, electron, mass, J. J. Thomson, proton, electrical charge, amber, alpha particle, beta particle, ionization, conservation of mass, Johannes Geiger, Ernest Marsden, coulomb, Niels Bohr, Bohr model of hydrogen, energy quantization, orbital angular momentum, Planck-Einstein relationship, joule, Newtonian force, Coulombic force, Max Planck, photon, energy, frequency, Planck’s constant, isotope, Henry Cavendish, Harold Urey, Ernest Rutherford, blackbody radiation |
| Chemical Substances |
lanthanum (La), magnesium (Mg), chlorine (Cl), titanium (Ti), helium (He), hydrogen (H) |
| Applications | nuclear fission, nanotechnology |
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
Prof. Sadoway discusses the atomic spectra of hydrogen (Session 4).
After completing this session, you should be able to:
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Sections 1-3
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [Saylor] 1.5, “The Atom.” | The electron; radioactivity; the atomic model |
| [Saylor] 6.2, “The Quantization of Energy.” | Blackbody radiation; the photoelectric effect |
| [Saylor] 6.3, “Atomic Spectra and Models of the Atom.” | Line spectra; the Bohr model; uses of emission and absorption spectra |
Periodic Table and Table of Constants
Prof. Sadoway talks about the principles of modern chemistry and how that led to the understanding of the structure of the atom. He details Bohr’s postulates for the hydrogen atom and discusses how the Planck-Einstein relationship applies to electron transitions. He defines the different isotopes of hydrogen.
This lecture includes the following:
| [Saylor] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [Saylor] 1.5, “The Atom.” | none | 4 |
| [Saylor] 1.6, “Isotopes and Atomic Masses.” | none | 10 |
| [Saylor] 6.1, “Waves and Electromagnetic Energy.” | none | 8 |
| [Saylor] 6.2, “The Quantization of Energy.” | none | 3, 6 |
Ottaviani, J. Suspended in Language: Niels Bohr’s Life, Discoveries, and the Century He Shaped. GT Labs: Ann Arbor, MI, 2004. ISBN: 9780978803728.
Rozental, S. Niels Bohr: His Life and Work as Seen by His Friends and Colleagues. New York, NY: Wiley, 1967.
Bohr, Niels H. D. On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules. New York, NY: W.A. Benjamin, 1963.
Bohr, Niels H. D. Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge. New York, NY: Wiley, 1958.
Bohr, Niels. “On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules.” Philosophical Magazine Series 6 26 (July 1913): 1-15.
Cathcart, B. The Fly in the Cathedral: How a Small Group of Cambridge Scientists Won the Race to Split the Atom. New York, NY: Penguin, 2005. ISBN: 9780670883219.
Andrade, E. N. Rutherford and the Nature of the Atom. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964.
Frayn, M. Copenhagen: A Play in Two Acts. New York, NY: S. French, 2000.
Miller, D. P. Discovering Water: James Watt, Henry Cavendish and the Nineteenth Century Water Controversy. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2004. ISBN: 9780754631774.
Joseph Thompson - 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics
Ernest Rutherford - 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Max Planck - 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics
Albert Einstein - 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics
Niels Bohr - 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics
Robert Millikan - 1923 Nobel Prize in Physics
Werner Heisenberg - 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics
Harold Urey - 1934 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
| Content | Provider | Level | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science | MIT OpenCourseWare | Undergraduate (first-year) | |
| The Bohr Model | HyperPhysics | High school |
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | atomic spectra of hydrogen, matter/energy interactions involving atomic hydrogen, planetary model, Bohr’s postulates, quantum condition, ionization energy, electron orbital transitions |
| Keywords | angstrom, Avogadro’s number, prism, refraction, wavelength, nanometer, Johann Balmer, wavenumber, Michael Faraday, cathode, anode, electron-volt, Bohr radius, ground state, ionization energy, energy level, conservation of energy, atomic spectra, Cecilia Payne, Ernest Rutherford, joule, coulomb, Max Planck, Planck’s constant, emission spectra, spectrograph, electrode, photon, volt, radiation |
| Chemical Substances | hydrogen (H), helium (He), lithium (Li) |
| Applications | chemical analysis, analyzing composition of stars, television |
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
Prof. Sadoway discusses the shell model and quantum numbers (Session 5).
After completing this session, you should be able to:
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Sections 3, 5
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [Saylor] 6.3, “Atomic Spectra and Models of the Atom.” | Line spectra; the Bohr model; uses of emission and absorption spectra |
This lecture gives more details about the atomic spectra of hydrogen along with matter/energy interactions involving atomic hydrogen.
Prof. Sadoway discusses the following:
| [Saylor] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [Saylor] 6.3, “Atomic Spectra and Models of the Atom.” | none | 1, 3 |
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia H. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin: An Autobiography and Other Recollections. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN: 9780521482516.
Baade, W., and Cecilia Payne. Evolution of Stars and Galaxies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.
Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia H. Stars and Clusters. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979. ISBN: 9780674834408.
Niels Bohr - 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics
Max Planck - 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics
Ernest Rutherford - 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
| Content | Provider | Level | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science | MIT OpenCourseWare | Undergraduate (first-year) | Lecture 5: Hydrogen Atom Energy Levels |
| The Hydrogen Atom | HyperPhysics | High school |
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | Bohr-Sommerfeld model and multi-electron atoms, quantum numbers (n, l, m, s), Balmer and Pfund series, Rydberg equation, Stern-Gerlach experiment |
| Keywords | angstrom, wavelength, wave number, electron-volt, electron shell, electron subshell, quantum numbers, James Franck, Heinrich Hertz, Albert Michelson, Edward Morley, Pieter Zeeman, Hendrik Lorentz, emission line splitting, Arnold Sommerfeld, Bohr-Sommerfeld model, multi-electron atom, Johannes Kepler, Niels Bohr, Otto Stern, Walter Gerlach, Rydberg equation |
| Chemical Substances | hydrogen (H), helium (He), mercury (Hg) |
| Applications | photodetectors |
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
Prof. Sadoway discusses particle-wave duality (Session 6).
After completing this session, you should be able to:
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Section 3
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [Saylor] 6.5, “Atomic Orbitals and Their Energies.” | Wave functions; quantum numbers; orbital shapes; orbital energies; effective nuclear charges |
| [Saylor] 6.6, “Building Up the Periodic Table.” | Electron spin: the fourth quantum number; the Pauli principle; electron configurations of the elements |
In this lecture, Prof. Sadoway discusses the following topics:
| [Saylor] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [Saylor] 6.5, “Atomic Orbitals and Their Energies.” | none | 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 |
Michelson, Albert A. Studies in Optics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1927.
Sommerfeld, Arnold. Atomic Structure and Spectral Lines. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton, 1931.
Sommerfeld, Arnold. Optics. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1964.
Dick, Harold G. The Golden Age of the Great Passenger Airships, Graf Zeppelin and Hindenburg. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. ISBN: 9781560982197.
Niels Bohr - 1922 Nobel Prize in Physics
Max Planck - 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics
Otto Stern - 1943 Nobel Prize in Physics
James Franck, Gustav Hertz - 1925 Nobel Prize in Physics
Albert Michelson - 1907 Nobel Prize in Physics
Pieter Zeeman, Hendrik Lorentz - 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics
| Content | Provider | Level | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science | MIT OpenCourseWare | Undergraduate (first-year) | Lecture 6: Hydrogen Atom Wavefunctions |
| Atomic Structure, The Hydrogen Atom | HyperPhysics | High school |
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | electron orbital filling: Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule, photoelectron spectroscopy, average valence electron energy, quantum mechanics: wave/particle duality, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Schrödinger equation |
| Keywords | Louis de Broglie, Werner Heisenberg, Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Aufbau principle, Wolfgang Pauli, Pauli exclusion principle, Friedrich Hund, Hund’s rule, Erwin Schrödinger, Schrödinger equation, quantum number, principal quantum number, angular momentum, magnetic quantum number, electron filling order, electron occupancy, orbital degeneracy, electron configuration, photon, standing wave, destructive interference, constructive interference, metal crystals, x-ray analysis, electron diffraction, matter waves, simple harmonic oscillator, wave equation, eigenfunction, radial probability density, nodes, nodal plane, spectral line splitting, electron spin |
| Chemical Substances | carbon (C), hydrogen (H) |
| Applications | ray optics, wave mechanics |
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
Prof. Sadoway discusses the Aufbau principle and photoelectron spectroscopy (Session 7).
After completing this session, you should be able to:
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Section 3
Archived Lecture Notes #2 (PDF), Section 3
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [Saylor] 6.4, “The Relationship between Energy and Mass.” | The wave character of matter; standing waves; the Heisenberg uncertainty principle |
| [Saylor] 6.6, “Building Up the Periodic Table.” | Electron spin: the fourth quantum number; the Pauli principle; electron configuration of the elements |
In this lecture, Prof. Sadoway discusses the following topics:
| [Saylor] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [Saylor] 6.4, “The Relationship between Energy and Mass.” | none | 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 |
Schrödinger, Erwin. My View of the World. Cambridge, MA: University Press, 1964.
Schrödinger, Erwin. Collected Papers on Wave Mechanics: Together With His Four Lectures on Wave Mechanics. New York, NY: Chelsea Publications, 1982. ISBN: 9780821829769.
Peat, F. David. From Certainty to Uncertainty: The Story of Science and Ideas in the Twentieth Century. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 2002. ISBN: 9780309076418.
Rigden, John S. Hydrogen: The Essential Element. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN: 9780674012523.
Frayn, M. Copenhagen: A Play in Two Acts. New York, NY: S. French, 2000.
Powers, Thomas. Heisenberg’s War: The Secret History of the German Bomb. New York, NY: Knopf, 1993. ISBN: 9780306810114.
Louis de Broglie - 1929 Nobel Prize in Physics
Werner Heisenberg - 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics
Erwin Schrödinger - 1933 Nobel Prize in Physics
Wolfgang Pauli - 1945 Nobel Prize in Physics
Clinton Davisson - 1937 Nobel Prize in Physics
| Content | Provider | Level | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5.111 Principles of Chemical Science | MIT OpenCourseWare | Undergraduate (first-year) |
Lecture 3: Wave-Particle Duality of Light Lecture 4: Wave-Particle Duality of Matter |
| Atomic Structure, The Schrödinger Equation | HyperPhysics | High school |
| Modules | Structure of the Atom |
| Concepts | ionic bonding: octet stability by electron transfer, properties of ionic compounds, ionic lattice energy, and ionization energies, electron filling order, quantum numbers (n, l, m, s), photoelectron spectroscopy |
| Keywords | Erwin Schrödinger, electron orbital, Aufbau principle, quantum numbers, wavefunction, eigenfunction, Schrödinger equation, simple harmonic oscillator, wave equation, atomic number, ionic separation, valence electrons, valence shell, average valence electron energy (AVEE), covalent bond, ionic bond, ionic compound, melting point, noble gases, valence shell occupancy, primary bond, metal, nonmetal, semimetal, metalloid |
| Chemical Substances | magnesium (Mg) |
| Applications | gas dynamics, crystals, electrometallurgy, applications of magnesium (Mg) – e.g. substitute for steel in automobiles |
Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:
Prof. Sadoway discusses ionic crystals and the Born-Haber cycle (Session 8).
After completing this session, you should be able to:
Archived Lecture Notes #1 (PDF), Section 4
| Book Chapters | Topics |
|---|---|
| [Saylor] 6.6, “Building Up the Periodic Table.“ | Electron spin: the fourth quantum number; the Pauli principle; electron configurations of the elements |
| [Saylor] 7.3, “Energetics of Ion Formation.“ | Ionization energies; electron affinities; electronegativity |
In this lecture, Prof. Sadoway discusses the following topics:
| [Saylor] Sections | Conceptual | Numerical |
|---|---|---|
| [Saylor] 8.1, “An Overview of Chemical Bonding.“ | 1 | none |
| [Saylor] 8.2, “Ionic Bonding.“ | 5, 6 | none |
| [Saylor] 8.3, “Lattice Energies in Ionic Solids.“ | 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 | none |
| [Saylor] 12.5, “Correlation Between Bonding and the Properties of Solids.“ | 2, 4 | none |
This self-assessment page completes the Structure of the Atom module, and covers material from the following sessions.
On this page are a simple weekly quiz and solutions; relevant exam problems and solutions from the 2009 class; help session videos that review selected solutions to the exam problems; and supplemental exam problems and solutions for further study.
This short quiz is given approximately once for every three lecture sessions. You should work through the quiz problems in preparation for the exam problems.
These exam problems are intended for you to demonstrate your personal mastery of the material, and should be done alone, closed-book, with just a calculator, the two permitted reference tables (periodic table, physical constants), and one 8 1/2" x 11" aid sheet of your own creation.
After you’ve taken the exam, watch the help session videos below for insights into how to approach some of the exam problems.
In these videos, 3.091 teaching assistants review some of the exam problems, demonstrating their approach to solutions, and noting some common mistakes made by students.
These additional exam problems from prior years’ classes are offered for further study.
